AGAPE LOVE—Unselfish, loyal, and benevolent concern for the well-being of another. In 1 Corinthians 13, Paul described "love" as a "more excellent way" than tongues or even preaching. The New Testament maintains this estimation of love throughout. The King James Version uses the word charity instead of "love" to translate the Greek word Paul used (agape). The word charity comes from the Latin caritas which means "dearness," "affection," or "high regard." Today, the word charity is normally used for acts of benevolence, and so the word love is to be preferred as a translation of agape. Nevertheless, the reader who comes to the agape of the New Testament with the idea of benevolence in mind is better off than the reader who comes with the idea of physical pleasure and satisfaction.
APOCRYPHA—Jews did not stop writing for centuries between the Old Testament and the New. The Intertestamental Period was a time of much literary production. We designate these writings as Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. See Pseudepigrapha. They did not attain canonical status, but some of them were cited by early Christians almost on a level with the Old Testament writings, and a few were copied in biblical manuscripts. Some New Testament authors were familiar with various non-canonical works, and the Epistle of Jude made specific reference to at least one of these books. They were ultimately preserved by the Christians rather than by the Jews. Meaning "things that are hidden," apocrypha is applied to a collection of fifteen books written between about 200 B.C. and A.D. 100. These are not a part of the Old Testament but are valued by some for private study. The word "apocrypha" is not found in the Bible. Although never part of the Hebrew Scriptures, all fifteen apocryphal books except 2 Esdras appear in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint. They were made a part of the official Latin Bible, the Vulgate. All except 1 and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Mannasseh are considered canonical (in the Bible) and authoritative by the Roman Catholic Church. From the time of the Reformation, the apocryphal books have been omitted from the canon of the Protestant churches. The Apocrypha represent various types of literature: historical, historical romance, wisdom, devotional, and apocalyptic. First Esdras is a historical book from the early first century A.D. Paralleling material in the last chapters of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, it covers the period from Josiah to the reading of the law by Ezra. In a number of places, it differs from the Old Testament account. It is believed that this writing drew from some of the same sources used by the writers of the canonical Old Testament books. The Three Guardsmen Story, 3:1-5:3, is the one significant passage in 1 Esdras that does not occur in the Old Testament. It tells how Zerubbabel was allowed to lead the exiles back to Palestine.
The most important historical writing in the Apocrypha is 1 Maccabees. It is the primary source for writing the history of the period it covers, 180 to 134 B.C. The emphasis is that God worked through Mattathias and his sons to bring deliverance. He did not intervene in divine, supernatural ways. He worked through people to accomplish His purposes. The writer was a staunch patriot. For him nationalism and religious zeal were one and the same. After introductory verses dealing with Alexander the Great, the book gives the causes for the revolt against the Seleucids. Much detail is given about the careers of Judas and Jonathan. Less attention is given to Simon, although emphasis is placed upon his being acclaimed leader and high priest forever. Brief reference to John Hyrcanus at the close suggests that the book was written either late in his life or after his death, probably shortly after 100 B.C. Second Maccabees also gives the history of the early part of the revolt against the Seleucids, covering the period from 180 to 161 B.C. It is based upon five volumes written by Jason of Cyrene, about which volumes nothing is known. Second Maccabees, written shortly after 100 B.C., is not considered as accurate historically as 1 Maccabees. In places the two books disagree. This book begins with two letters written to Jews in Egypt urging them to celebrate the cleansing of the Temple by Judas. In the remainder of the writing, the author insisted that the Jews’ trouble came as the result of their sinfulness. He emphasized God’s miraculous intervention to protect the Temple and His people. Great honor was bestowed upon those who were martyred for their faith. The book includes the story of seven brothers and their mother who were put to death. The book clearly teaches a resurrection of the body, at least for the righteous. Tobit is a historical romance written about 200 B.C. It is more concerned to teach lessons than to record history. The story is of a family carried into exile in Assyria when Israel was destroyed. The couple, Tobit and Anna, had a son named Tobias. Tobit had left a large sum of money with a man in Media. When he became blind, he sent his son to collect the money. A man was found to accompany the son Tobias. In reality he was the angel Raphael. Parallel to this is the account of a relative named Sarah. She had married seven husbands, but a demon had slain each of them on the wedding night. Raphael told Tobias that he was eligible to marry Sarah. They had caught a fish and had preserved the heart, liver, and gall. When burned, the heart and liver would drive away a demon. The gall would cure blindness. Thus Tobias was able to marry Sarah without harm. Raphael collected the money that was left in Media, and the blindness of Tobit was cured by means of the fish’s gall. The book stresses Temple attendance, paying of tithes, giving alms, marrying only within the people of Israel, and the importance of prayer. Obedience to the law is central along with separation of Jews from Gentiles. It introduces the concept of a guardian angel.
The book of Judith, from 250 to 150 B.C. shows the importance of obedience to the law. In this book Nebuchadnezzar, the king of the Assyrians, reigned at the time the Jews returned from Exile. This shows it is not historically accurate, for Cyrus of Persia was king when the Jews returned from Exile (538 B.C.). The story may be based upon some event where a woman played an heroic role in the life of her people. In the story Nebuchadnezzar sent one of his generals, Holofernes, to subjugate the nations in the western part of his empire. The Jews resisted. Holofernes laid siege to the city of Bethulia (unknown except for this reference). Because of a shortage of water, the city decided to surrender in five days if God did not intervene. Judith had been a widow for three years and had been careful to obey all the law. She stated that God was going to act through her to save His people. She went with her maid to the camp of Holofernes, claiming that God was going to destroy the people because of their sin. She promised to show the general how he could capture the city without loss of a life. At a banquet a few days later, when Holofernes had drunk himself into a coma, she cut off his head and took it back to the city. The result was a great victory for the Jews over their enemies. This book places emphasis upon prayer and fasting. Idolatry is denounced, and the God of Israel is glorified. The book shows a strong hatred of pagans. Its moral content is low, for it teaches that the end justifies the means.
The Apocrypha contains additions to the book of Esther. The Hebrew text of Esther contains 163 verses, but the Greek contains 270. These additions are in six different places in the Greek text. However, in the Latin Vulgate they are all placed at the end. These sections contain such matters as the dream of Mordecai, the interpretation of that dream, the texts of the letters referred to in the canonical book, (Esther 1:22; 3:13; 8:5, 10; 9:20, 25-30) and the prayers of Esther and Mordecai. The additions give a more obviously religious basis for the book. In the Old Testament book of Esther, God is never named. This omission is remedied by the additions which were probably made between 125 and 75 B.C. The Song of the Three Young Men is one of three additions to the book of Daniel. It follows Daniel 3:23 in the Greek text. It satisfies curiosity about what went on in the furnace into which the three men were thrown. The final section is a hymn of praise to God. It emphasizes that God acts to deliver His people in response to prayer. This writing, along with the other two additions to Daniel, probably comes from near 100 B.C.
The story of Susanna is added at the close of the Book of Daniel in the Septuagint. It tells of two judges who were overpowered by the beauty of Susanna and sought to become intimate with her. When she refused, they claimed they had seen her being intimate with a young man. Authorities believed their charges and condemned the young lady to death. Daniel then stated that the judges were lying, and he would prove it. He asked them, separately, under what tree they saw Susanna and the young man. When they identified different kinds of trees, their perjury became apparent. They were condemned to death, and Susanna was vindicated.
The third addition to Daniel is Bel and the Dragon, placed before Susanna in the Septuagint. Bel was an idol worshiped in Babylon. Large quantities of food were placed in Bel’s temple each night and consumed before the next morning. King Cyrus asked Daniel why he did not worship Bel, and Daniel replied that Bel was only a man-made image. He would prove to the king that Bel was not alive. Daniel had ashes sprinkled on the floor of the temple and food placed on Bel’s altar before sealing the temple door. The next morning the seals on the doors were intact, but when the doors were opened the food was gone. However, the ashes sprinkled on the floor revealed footprints of the priests and their families. They had a secret entrance and came at night and ate the food brought to the idol. The second part of the story of Bel and the Dragon concerned a dragon worshiped in Babylon. Daniel killed the dragon by feeding it cakes of pitch, fat, and hair. The people were outraged, and Daniel was thrown into the lions’ den for seven days. However, the lions did not harm him. These stories ridicule paganism and the worship of idols.
The next four apocryphal books are examples of Wisdom literature. The Wisdom of Solomon which was not written by Solomon, was probably written about 100 B.C. in Egypt. The first section of the book gave comfort to oppressed Jews and condemned those who had turned from their faith in God. It shows the advantages of wisdom over wickedness. The second section is a hymn of praise to wisdom. Wisdom is identified as a person present with God, although it is not given as much prominence as in some other writings. The final section shows wisdom as helpful to Israel throughout its history. This writing presents the Greek concept of immortality rather than the biblical teaching of resurrection. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach is also known as Ecclesiasticus. It emphasizes the importance of the law and obedience to it. Written in Hebrew about 180 B.C., it was translated into Greek by the author’s grandson shortly after 132 B.C. The book has two main divisions, 1-23 and 24-51, each beginning with a description of wisdom. The writer was a devout Jew, highly educated, with the opportunity to travel outside Palestine. Thus he included in his writing not only traditional Jewish wisdom but material that he found of value from the Greek world. He pictured the ideal scribe as one who had time to devote himself to the study of the law. Chapters 44-50 are a praise of the great fathers of Israel, somewhat similar to Hebrews 11. Wisdom is highly exalted. She is a person made by God. She goes into the earth to seek a dwelling place. After she is rejected by other people, she is established in Zion. Wisdom is identified with the law.
The Book of Baruch is also in the wisdom category. It is a combination of two or three different writings. The first section is in prose and claims to give a history of the period of Jeremiah and Baruch. However, it differs from the Old Testament account. The second section is poetry and a praise of wisdom. The final section is also poetic and gives a word of hope for the people. As in Sirach, wisdom and law are equated. It was written shortly before 100 B.C. The Letter of Jeremiah is often added to Baruch as chapter 6. As the basis for his work, the author evidently used Jeremiah 29:1-23, in which Jeremiah did write a letter to the exiles. However, this letter comes from before 100 B.C. It is a strongly worded condemnation of idolatry.
The Prayer of Manasseh is a devotional writing. It claims to be the prayer of the repentant king whom the Old Testament pictured as very wicked (2 Kings 21:10-17). Second Kings makes no suggestion that Manasseh repented. However, 2 Chronicles 33:11-13, 18-19 states that he did repent and that God accepted him. This writing from before 100 B.C. is what such a prayer of repentance might have been.
The final book of the Apocrypha is 2 Esdras, written too late to be included in the Septuagint. Chapters 1-2 and 15-16 are Christian writings. Chapters 3-14, the significant part of the work, are from about 20 B.C. This writing is an apocalypse, a type of writing popular among the Jews in the Intertestamental Period and which became popular among Christians. See Apocalyptic. Daniel in the Old Testament and Revelation in the New Testament represent this type of writing. Apocalyptic calls attention to the difficult circumstances of God’s people and centers upon the end of the age and the new age which God will inaugurate. Second Esdras contains seven sections or visions. In the first three, Ezra seeks answers from an angel about human sin and the situation of Israel. The answer he receives is that the situation will change only in the new age that God is about to inaugurate. The third section pictures the Messiah. He will remain four hundred years and then die. The next three visions stress God’s coming intervention and salvation of His people through the pre-existent Messiah. The final section states that the end will be soon and reports that Ezra was inspired to write ninety-four books. Twenty-four are a rewrite of the canonical Old Testament while the other seventy are to be given to the wise. The last two chapters of 2 Esdras contain material common to the New Testament.
by Clayton Harrop
Apostle—Persons sent to accomplish a mission, especially the twelve apostles Jesus commissioned to follow Him. An apostle represents the one sending and has the authority to represent the sender in business, political, or educational situations.
ASCENSION— Act of going to heaven in bodily form from earthly life. Experienced by Enoch (Gen. 5:24) and Elijah (2 Kings 2:1-2) but supremely by Jesus Christ (Acts 1:9).
Jewish literature outside the canon of the Bible developed long stories and explanations of the ascension of many religious heroes. See, for example, the Assumption of Moses. The Bible gives only brief notices. Still, the ascension of Jesus provides important theological foundations. It concluded the earthly ministry of Jesus, allowing eyewitnesses to see both the risen Christ on earth and the victorious, eternal Christ returning to heaven to minister at the right hand of the Father. The ascension expanded Christ's ministry from its geographically limited earthly dimensions to its universal heavenly dimensions.
The ascension (1) allowed Jesus to prepare a heavenly place for His followers (John 14:2), (2) return to the Father (John 16:5), (3) send the Holy Spirit to the disciples (John 16:7) to bring conviction of sin, open the way to righteousness through faith, and condemn the devil, (4) comfort those suffering for Him through visions of the Ascended One (Acts 7:54-60), (5) call persons to fulfill His missionary task (Acts 9:1-18), (6) open doors of ministry for His people (2 Cor. 2:12-14), (7) demonstrate God’s power and His rule over all who would exercise power and authority on earth or in heaven (Eph. 1:20-23), (8) give gifts for ministry to His people (Eph. 4:7-12), (9) give hope to troubled followers showing they would join Him in glory (Col. 3:1-4), (10) rescue His servants from persecution so they can preach His gospel (2 Tim. 4:16-18), (11) demonstrate that glory, not death, is God’s final word for the Son and for disciples (Heb. 2:9), (12) exercise a heavenly priesthood (Heb. 4:14), (13) make revelation of future trials and final victory possible (Rev. 1:1), (14) discipline His church so He may have fellowship with it and provide final full fellowship in ruling with Christ (Rev. 3:19-22).
Most of all the ascension combined with the resurrection exalted Christ (Phil. 2:9). Contrasted to Christ's act of humbling Himself to move from heaven to earth and especially to the cross (Phil. 2:5-8) is God’s act of exalting Jesus to the highest position in the universe, in charge of everything that exists and all that happens. Thus in ascension Jesus showed He had defeated death for good and made eternal life possible. The ascension thus calls on all people to bow in worship and obedience to the Ascended One (Phil. 2:10).
ATONEMENT (uh tohne' mehnt)—meaning reconciliation, was associated with sacrificial offerings to remove the effects of sin and in the New Testament, refers specifically to the reconciliation between God and humanity effected by the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ. New Testament—The New Testament rarely uses a word for atonement. The basic Greek word is katallasso, usually translated "to reconcile," and the corresponding noun, katallage, meaning "reconciliation." The basic meaning is to establish friendship. This is used in human relationships in 1 Corinthians 7:11, referring to the restoration of relationship between an estranged husband and wife. Paul used the term in reference to Christ's work of salvation in Romans 5:10-11; 11:15; 2 Corinthians 5:18-20. The Greek term hilaskomai, "to forgive" or "show mercy" along with the nouns hilasmos, "means of forgiveness," and hilasterion, "means or place of forgiveness" are the important words in the discussion of expiation and propitiation. They occur in Luke 18:13; Romans 3:25; Hebrews 2:17; 9:5; 1 John 2:2; 4:10.
BAAL (Bay' uhl)—Lord of Canaanite religion and seen in the thunderstorms, Baal was worshiped as the god who provided fertility. He proved a great temptation for Israel. "Baal" occurs in the Old Testament as a noun meaning, "lord, owner, possessor, or husband," and as a proper noun referring to the supreme god of the Canaanites, and often to the name of a man. According to 1 Chronicles 5:5, Baal was a descendant of Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn son, and the father of Beerah. Baal was sent into exile by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria. The genealogical accounts of Saul’s family listed in 1 Chronicles 9:35-36 indicates that the fourth son of Jehiel was named Baal.
The noun comes from a verb that means to marry or rule over. The verb form occurs in the Hebrew text 29 times, whereas the noun occurs 166 times. The noun appears in a number of compound forms which are proper names for locations where Canaanite deities were worshiped, such as Baal-peor (Num. 25:5; Deut. 4:3; Ps. 106:28; Hos. 9:10), Baal-hermon (Judg. 3:3; 1 Chron. 5:23), and Baal-gad (Josh. 11:17; 12:7; 13:5). See Canaan.
by James Newell
BENEFACTORS—An honorary title bestowed on kings or other prominent people for some meritorious achievement or public service. The title in Greek is Euergetes and was held by some of the Hellenistic kings of Egypt. One would not earn the title "benefactor" from service rendered in the kingdom of God. In contrast to the conspicuous work needed to earn the title "benefactor," the members of the kingdom are to devote themselves to humble, obscure, and perhaps menial service (Luke 22:24-27).
CHRIST— CHRISTOLOGY “Christ” is the English rendering of the Greek Christos, meaning “anointed.” See Messiah, below, which translates the corresponding Hebrew term mashiach, the anointed one.
COVENANT—A pact, treaty, alliance, or agreement between two parties of equal or of unequal authority. The covenant or testament is a central, unifying theme in Scripture, God’s covenants with individuals and the nation Israel finding final fulfillment in the new covenant in Christ Jesus. God’s covenants can be understood by humans because they are modeled on human covenants or treaties.
Human Covenants—Covenants among Humans In biblical language, people "cut" a covenant with another person or group of people. Abraham and Abimelech cut such a covenant as equal partners, agreeing that the well at Beersheba belonged to Abraham (Gen. 21:22-34). Sacrifices accompanied the covenant making. Apparently, Abraham gained the right to live among Abimelech’s people, the Philistines (v. 34). Jonathan and David cut a covenant of friendship in which Jonathan acknowledged David’s right to the throne (1 Sam. 18:3; 23:18). Such an agreement was a "covenant of the Lord" (1 Sam 20:8), that is the Lord was its witness and guarantee. At the time Jonathan possessed greater authority than David, but in the covenant he acknowledged David’s coming authority over him. Abner led the tribes of northern Israel to cut a covenant with David, making David king over the north as well as over southern Judah (2 Sam.3; Compare 5:3; 1 Chron. 11:3). David, who occupied the position of power and authority in the agreement, demanded that Abner also produce Saul’s daughter who David had married earlier. Solomon and Hiram made a covenant of peace which apparently included certain trade agreements (1 Kings 5:12). Bible students differ as to whether Hiram or Solomon had authority over the other or whether the covenant was between equals. In any case, both sides entered into obligations with the other to provide certain commodities.
King Zedekiah made a covenant with the people of Jerusalem, releasing the Hebrews from slavery (Jer. 34:8). In so doing, he apparently implemented the laws concerning the year of Jubilee (Lev. 25:10), but he also conducted good politics in providing additional soldiers to protect Jerusalem against Babylon and in freeing Jerusalem’s slaveholders from responsibilities to feed so many people in an economically insecure time.
When the danger appeared over, the people tried to take back their slaves (Jer. 34:11). A ceremony accompanied this covenant ritual—the two sides of the covenant agreement cut a calf in two and solemnly paraded between its parts (Jer. 34:18). This covenant was made "before Yahweh" (34:18). What modern business might call a secular transaction was a religious one involving God as witness and guarantor. Covenant violation brought condemnation in public worship (Ps. 55:20).
Ezra reformed the restored Jewish community by leading them to make a covenant together in God’s presence. They would agree to divorce foreign wives and separate themselves from the children so strongly influenced by the foreign mothers (Ezra 10:3).
The Hebrew language used different prepositions to state that a covenant has been made between parties. That such change of prepositions indicated difference of meaning is a debated topic. The ability to use such expressions as synonyms probably indicates that the Hebrews did not hear any significant difference in meaning when they heard the varying expressions.
This is seen in comparing Isaac’s covenant concerning the digging of wells (Gen. 26:28) with Abraham’s (Gen. 21:22-24) discussed above. Isaac’s covenant did involve an oath sworn before God that the parties would deal peaceably with one another. Feasting and drinking accompanied the covenant making.
Hosea denounced the northern kingdom’s covenant or vassal treaty with Assyria (Hos. 12:1; compare 7:8-14; 8:9; 10:4; 2 Kings 17:3-4). Such treaties sought to gain military protection from foreign countries rather than relying upon Yahweh, the covenant God. (See Ex. 23:32; 34:12, 15; Deut. 7:2). God used a sarcastic tone to ask Job if he could impose a vassal treaty on the leviathan monster, Leviathan agreeing to become Job’s docile slave (Job 41:4).
When Athaliah tried to usurp the throne and kill off the royal family, the priest Jehoiada made a covenant agreement with the army (2 Chron. 23:1) and with all the people (v. 3) to support the king Joash against Athaliah (compare 2 Kings 11). They made the covenant in the Temple, thus in the presence of God, seeking His blessing on the covenant and making Him a witness to it.
Israel’s enemies plotted against Israel and made military covenants or alliances to support an attack on Israel (Ps. 83:4-8). They entered into economic covenants or agreements with one another (Isa. 33:8).
Israel had a long history of making covenant agreements with foreigners, despite God’s warnings not to do so. The Gibeonites deceived Israel under Joshua into making a vassal treaty. Israel easily occupied the position of authority in the treaty and subjected the Gibeonites to temple service, but still this violated God’s commandments (Josh. 9; compare Judg. 2:2). The Israelites in Jabesh Gilead begged for a treaty from Nahash, the Ammonite, but he demanded severe conditions. Saul delivered them, leading to affirmation of Saul’s kingship (1 Sam. 11).
Ben-Hadad, king of Damascus in Syria, promised to return captured cities to Israel and to provide Israel with markets for its products in Damascus if the king of Israel would make a peace treaty or political alliance with him (1 Kings 20:31-35). Earlier, Asa, king of Judah, had used the Temple treasury to pay tribute to Ben-Hadad of Damascus to entice Ben-Hadad to break his vassal treaty with Baasha, king of Israel, and enter into a similar treaty with Judah (1 Kings 15:19; 2 Chron. 16:3). This is the typical example of a political covenant. One party desires privileges from the other party and pays for the privileges. Such payment may be enforced by a victorious king or may be offered by a weak king needing help against enemies. Members of such a covenant alliance were called "baals of the covenant" or lords, owners of the covenant (Gen. 14:13), a technical term for allies. They could also be called "men of the covenant" (Obad. 7). Covenant treaties carried expectations of humane and moral treatment of other members of the covenant, the covenant being literally a covenant of brothers (Amos 1:9; compare 1 Kings 20:32-33).
Each covenant had special conditions effecting the power in authority and the one becoming a vassal or imposing demands on each partner of a covenant between equals. Breaking covenant conditions meant treason and extreme punishment (Ezek. 17:12-18; compare Amos 1:9).
Marriage involved covenant obligations with God as the witness (Mal. 2:14). This could be used to describe the covenant relationship between God and His people (Ezek. 16:8; Hos. 2:19-20).
Isaiah spoke menacingly of a covenant of death political leaders had made (Isa. 28:15). They thought they had bought protection from their enemies. The prophet reminded them nothing made them secure against God’s judgment. The action behind the covenant of death can be variously interpreted: a ritual with a foreign god of the underworld or of death, a mutual alliance to fight to the death, a treaty with a foreign power that brought God’s judgment and thus death.
Covenant in the New Testament—The New Testament by use of the Greek diatheke transformed covenant into testament, diatheke referring to a binding will a person made to ensure proper disposal of goods upon the death of the person making the will (see Gal. 3:15; Heb. 9:17). Still, the New Testament followed the Septuagint, the earliest Greek translation, in using diatheke to translate the Hebrew berith or covenant. New Testament language is thus Greek with a strong Hebrew flavoring.
The Qumran community which produced the Dead Sea Scrolls gave new significance to covenant theology. They saw themselves as the people of the new covenant. They had strict regulations for applicants for membership, and they expected members to obey the Old Testament law as they interpreted it.
Jesus used the last supper as opportunity to interpret His ministry, and particularly His death, as fulfillment of Jeremiah’s new covenant prophecy. His death represented the shedding of the blood of the new covenant. People who repeated the rites of the last supper drank the blood of the new covenant, remembering His death as the sacrifice for sins (Matt. 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25).
Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, interpreted the announcement of John’s birth as evidence that God had remembered His holy covenant (Luke 1:72). Peter told skeptical Jews that they were children of the covenant with Abraham and that Christ had come first to them to fulfill the promise of blessing to Abraham by turning them away from their sinful ways (Acts 3:25). Stephen reminded those who would murder him that the covenant of circumcision with Abraham continued as part of God’s history of salvation leading to Jesus (Acts 7:8). Paul confirmed that just as a human last will and testament could not be changed by another person, so God’s covenant with Abraham could not be changed or annulled (Gal. 3:15-17). Paul asserted that with the coming of Christ and Israel’s rejection of Him, God still had a covenant to save Israel (Rom. 11:27). Paul interpreted Christ as the one who had made the meaning of the Old Testament plain, removing the veil that caused the Jews to continue looking only to Moses rather than to look to Christ as God’s final revelation (2 Cor. 3:14). Paul was a minister of the new covenant, not of the old (2 Cor. 3:6), a ministry of the Spirit and of life, not of dead literalism.
In the New Testament only Hebrews makes covenant a central theological theme. The emphasis is on Jesus, the perfect High Priest, providing a new, better, superior covenant (Heb. 7:22; 8:6). Jesus represented the fulfillment of Jeremiah’s new covenant promise (Heb. 8:8, 10; 10:16). Jesus was the perfect covenant Mediator (Heb. 9:15), providing an eternal inheritance in a way the old covenant could not (compare 12:24). Jesus’ death on the cross satisfied the requirement that all covenants be established by blood (Heb. 9:18, 20) just as was the first covenant (Ex. 24:8). Christ's blood established an everlasting covenant (Heb. 13:20). If Israel suffered for breaking the Sinai covenant (Heb. 8:9-10), how much more should people expect to suffer if they have "counted the blood of the covenant, wherewith he was sanctified, an unholy thing" (Heb. 10:29).
The Greek word testament eventually gave its name to the two parts of our Bible—the Old and the New Testaments. In many ways the name is appropriate to show that the two parts of Scripture rest on God’s gracious action in redeeming His people and making a covenant with them, showing them the living conditions in the kingdom of God, conditions which also reflect His grace because they are best for the citizens of the kingdom.
Trent C. Butler
DEITY—The essential nature or condition of being a god, divinity; God.
DELIVERANCE, DELIVERER—Rescue from danger. In Scripture God gives deliverance (Pss. 18:50; 32:7; 44:4), often through a human agent. In the Old Testament deliverance most often refers to victory in battle (Judg. 15:18; 2 Kings 5:1; 13:17; 1 Chron. 11:14; 2 Chron. 12:7). Joseph was God’s agent to deliver His people from famine (Gen. 45:7). The Old Testament consistently stresses God as the giver of deliverance rather than the human agent. Thus Mordecai warned Esther that is she failed to act out her role as deliverer God would provide another way (Esther 4:14). KJV also uses "deliverance" to describe the remnant that survives a battle or exile (Ezra 9:13). In KJV both New Testament uses of deliverance refers to release of prisoners (Luke 4:18; Heb. 11:35). Modern translations use "deliverance" to refer to rescue from danger in Acts 7:25; Philippians 1:19.
A deliverer is one who rescues from danger. Two of the judges, Othniel and Ehud (Judg. 3:9, 15), are called deliverers in the sense of military heroes. More often God is spoken of as the Deliverer of His people (2 Sam. 22:2; Ps. 18:2; 40:17; 144:2). The picture of God as deliverer is paralleled with the images of a rock, fortress, helper, and strong tower. Acts 7:35 refers to Moses as a deliverer. Romans 11:26-27 refers to the Messianic King as the Deliverer who will take away Israel’s sins.
The verb "deliver" is used in a wide range of contexts. According to Job 5:19-26 God delivers in 7 ways; from famine, war, the scourge of the tongue, the wild animals, to safety, abundant offspring, and long life. Scripture also speaks to deliverance from sin (Ps. 39:8; 79:9); the way of evil (Prov. 2:12); the power of evil (Matt. 6:13; Gal. 1:4; Col. 1:13); the body of death (Rom. 7:24); the law (Rom. 7:6); and the coming wrath of God (1 Thess. 1:10). God is the agent of deliverance in Colossians 1:13 and Romans 7:24-25. Christ is the agent in 1 Thessalonians 1:10 and Galatians 1:4, where Christ brings deliverance by giving Himself for sins.
Epistles—The English word "epistle" refers to written correspondence. The majority of the canonical writings of the New Testament are epistolary in nature. The New Testament includes letters written by Paul, James, Peter, John, and Jude. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews is unidentified.
EXPIATION, PROPITIATION—(Ex pee ay' shuhn; Proh pih tee ay' shuhn)—Terms used by Christian theologians in attempts to define and explain the meaning of Christ's death on the cross as it relates to God and to believers. Expiation emphasizes the removal of guilt through a payment of the penalty, while propitiation emphasizes the appeasement or averting of God’s wrath and justice. Both words are related to reconciliation, since it is through Christ's death on the cross for our sins that we are reconciled to a God of holy love (Rom. 5:9-11; 2 Cor. 5:18-21; Col. 1:19-23).
Biblical Vocabulary The point of difference in interpretation for theologians has centered on the Greek word hilasmos in 1 John 2:2; 4:10. A look at various translations show the distinctions here: "propitiation" (KJV, NASB); "expiation" (RSV); "atoning sacrifice for our sins" (NIV, NRSV, compare REB); "means by which our sins are forgiven" (TEV). Related Greek words occur in Matthew 16:22; Luke 18:13; Romans 3:25; Hebrews 2:17; 8:12; 9:5. KJV uses various translations of these words: "be merciful," "make reconciliation," "to be a propitiation," "the mercy-seat," "be it far from thee," "I will be merciful."
In Greek writings hilasmos refers to soothing the anger of the gods. In the Septuagint, the earliest Greek translation of the Old Testament, hilasmos appears in Leviticus 25:9 in the expression, "day of atonement"; in Psalm 130:4 to confess that there is "forgiveness" with God; in Numbers 5:8 in the expression the "ram of the atonement"; and in Ezekiel 44:27 as a "sin-offering."
Daniel 9:9 uses the plural form to speak of "forgivenesses" which are a character trait of God.
Some scholars interpret these Old Testament references to mean that God has acted as the subject to cover and forgive sins. He has removed the uncleanness or defilement of sin. Other scholars see God as the object receiving the offering for sin which then in some sense pacifies His anger and meets His holy need for justice. In the New Testament setting, this would mean that on the cross Jesus either dealt with the evil nature of human sin and covered it so that God forgives it, or it means that Jesus satisfied God’s holy anger and justice so that forgiven sinners could freely enter the presence of the holy God. Some scholars would see both ideas present in the word hilasmos, so that God in grace initiated the sacrifice of Jesus to provide covering and forgiveness for human sin but that He also received the sacrifice which satisfied His anger and justice.
The background of the idea is the Old Testament sacrificial system. The whole system sought to procure God’s favor through obediently following ways He commanded. God promised to show His mercy after His faithful people followed certain ritual requirements. These included the burnt offering (Lev. 1:3-17), the peace offering (3:1-17), the sin offering (4:1-5:13), and the guilt offering (5:15-6:6). None of these dealt with "defiant sins" (Num. 15:20-31), only with "sin through ignorance" (Lev. 4:2). The high point of the sacrificial cult was the annual day of atonement when the sins of the people were laid on a scapegoat by the high priest and the sin-laden animal was then driven into the wilderness to perish (Lev. 16:1-34). Such a system could easily forget its basis in God’s grace shown in the Exodus and in His commands providing the system. Then sacrifice could quickly be viewed as a mechanical way to forgiveness. When this happened, the prophets of the Old Testament frequently protested against the externalism of the priestly cult of sacrifice, saying much more effect came through a humble heart, the sacrifice of repentance (Ps. 51:17; Isa. 1:10-20; Jer. 6:20; Hos. 6:6; Joel 2:13; Mic. 6:6-8).
In the Old Testament, the note of grace is clearly present. God did not simply wait for His people to bring before Him the appropriate sacrifices. He took the initiative in specifying which sacrifices would be needed. When Abraham showed willingness to sacrifice Isaac, God Himself supplied the adequate substitute offering (Gen. 22:1-19). The Old Testament repeats its promise that God remains gracious even in our sinning, that He stands ready to forgive even before we are ready to repent (Pss. 78:21-28; 89:28-34; Isa. 65:1-2; Jer. 31:1-3, 31-34; Hos. 6:1-2). God expects people both to repent of sin and to commit themselves to obey His covenant.
The New Testament shows how Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament system of sacrifices and thus replaced it with His own work on the cross. The Old Testament system could not purify the consciences of those who offered them (Heb. 8:7, 13; 10:1-4). In their stead, God provided a perfect Sacrifice, that of His own Son. This sacrifice is eternal, not provisional; it is sufficient to cover or expiate all human sin, not just specific sins (Heb. 7:26-28; 9:25-26). The sacrifice of Jesus Christ on Calvary restored the broken relationship between God and His people and did not need to be repeated. He made reconciliation available to all people in all times. Such reconciliation involves a change both in God’s attitude toward us and in our attitude toward God. The cross of Calvary was God’s eternal plan to deal with human sin so that John could describe Jesus as the "Lamb slain from the foundation of the world" (Rev. 13:8). God chose to forgive us before the sacrifice was enacted in history, but His forgiveness could not reach us until this sacrifice took place.
To understand the need for propitiation and for expiation, we have to remind ourselves that the God of the Bible is both holy and loving. His holiness means that sin cannot be condoned. His love signifies that the sinner can be accepted if the claims of divine holiness are recognized. The atoning sacrifice of Christ both satisfies the demands of His holy law and demonstrates His boundless love, the love that goes beyond the law. God was not waiting to be appeased (as in the pagan, Greek conception). Rather, God condescended to meet us on our level to remedy the situation. He provided the sacrificial offering that expiates human sin and makes reconciliation possible. Both Old and the New Testaments proclaim that only God’s grace opens the door to salvation. All ritual requirements for sacrifice in the Old Testament are replaced by the sacrifice of the cross, which wipes away the record of our debts to God (Col. 2:14; Heb. 10:14-18). The only sacrifices now required of the Christian are those of praise and thanksgiving, which take the form of worship in spirit and in truth and the obedience of discipleship (Rom. 12:1; Heb. 13:15-16; 1 Pet. 2:5). God calls us to demonstrate our gratefulness for His self-sacrifice by leading lives of holiness, lives that give the world a sign and witness of God’s great love for us shown in Jesus Christ.
In conclusion, the doctrine of the atonement includes both the dimensions of propitiation—averting the wrath of God—and expiation—taking away or covering over human guilt. By the expiation of human guilt, the wrath of God is turned away, the holiness of God is satisfied. Yet it is God who in the person of His Son performs the sacrifice of expiation. It is God who in the person of His Son swallows up evil within Himself through vicarious identification with the sin of His people. A sacrifice was necessary to satisfy the demands of His law, but God Himself provided the Sacrifice out of His incomparable love. What human ritual offerings could not do, God has done once for all by giving up His Son for the sins of the whole human race.
Donald G. Bloesch
Faith—as the Way to Salvation or deliverance from sin—The concept of faith is primarily that of a personal relationship with God that determines the priorities of one’s life. This relationship is one of love that is built on trust and dependence. We receive it by trusting the saving work of Jesus. Faith is the basic Christian experience, the decision for Christ Jesus. It is the acceptance of Christ's lordship (i.e., His God-given, absolute authority). In this sense faith is doubly a break from the past: it is one’s removal from sin, and it is one’s removal from all other religious allegiances (1 Thess. 1:9). As a break from the past, faith is the beginning of relation to God and not an end. It is, especially in Paul’s letters, the inauguration of incorporation "in Christ," in which one continues to grow and develop.
If faith is primarily a relationship into which one enters through acceptance of Jesus’ authority, it also includes a certain amount of "belief." As a derived use, then, "faith" may also denote the content of what is believed. In this sense faith is the conviction that God acted in the history of Israel and "that God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself" (2 Cor. 5:19). In theological usage "the faith" may refer to many more doctrines and dogmas that have been developed since New Testament times, but in the New Testament "that which must be believed" was more limited as Romans 10:9-10 may demonstrate.
FESTIVALS—Regular religious celebrations remembering God’s great acts of salvation in the history of His people. Traditionally called "feasts" in the English Bibles, these can conveniently be categorized according to frequency of celebration. Many of them were timed according to cycles of seven. The cycle of the week with its climax on the seventh day, provided the cyclical basis for much of Israel’s worship: as the seventh day was observed, so was the seventh month (which contained four of the national festivals), and the seventh year, and the fiftieth year (the year of Jubilee), which followed seven cycles each of seven years. Not only were the festivals as a whole arranged with reference to the cycle of the week (Sabbath), two of them (the feast of unleavened bread and the Feast of Tabernacles) lasted for seven days each. Each began on the fifteenth of the month—at the end of two cycles of weeks and when the moon was full. Pentecost also was celebrated on the fifteenth of the month and began fifty days after the presentation of the firstfruits—the day following seven times seven weeks.
Feast of Weeks—The second of the three annual festivals was Pentecost, also called the feast of weeks (Ex. 34:22; Deut. 16:10, 16; 2 Chron. 8:13), the feast of harvest (Ex. 23:16), and the day of firstfruits (Num. 28:26; compare Ex. 23:16; 34:22; Lev. 23:17). It was celebrated seven complete weeks, or fifty days, after Passover (Lev. 23:15, 16; Deut. 16:9); therefore, it was given the name Pentecost.
Essentially a harvest celebration, the term "weeks" was used of the period of grain harvest from the barley harvest to the wheat harvest, a period of about seven weeks. At this time, the Lord was credited as the source of rain and fertility (Jer. 5:24). It was called "day of firstfruits" (Num. 28:26) because it marked the beginning of the time in which people were to bring offerings of firstfruits. It was celebrated as a sabbath with rest from ordinary labors and the calling of a holy convocation (Lev. 23:21; Num. 28:26). It was a feast of joy and thanksgiving for the completion of the harvest season. The able-bodied men were to be present at the sanctuary, and a special sacrifice was offered (Lev. 23:15-22; Num. 28:26-31). According to Leviticus 23:10-11, 16, 17, two large loaves were waved before the Lord by the anointed priests. These were made of fine flour from the new wheat and baked with leaven. They were a "wave offering" for the people. They could not be eaten until after this ceremony (Lev. 23:14; Josh. 5:10-11), and none of this bread was placed on the altar because of the leaven content. Also two lambs were offered. The feast was concluded by the eating of communal meals to which the poor, the stranger, and the Levites were invited.
Later tradition associated the feast of weeks with the giving of the law at Sinai. It had been concluded by some that Exodus 19:1 indicated the law was delivered on the fiftieth day after the Exodus. Some thought that Deuteronomy 16:12 may have connected the Sinai event and the festival, but Scripture does not indicate any definite link between Sinai and Pentecost. In the New Testament the Holy Spirit came upon the disciples at Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4), at the festive time when Jews from different countries were in Jerusalem to celebrate this annual feast.
GENESIS—First book of the Bible, providing a universal setting for God’s revelation and introducing basic biblical teachings. Genesis moves in two parts: (1) universal creation, rebellion, punishment, and restoration; (2) God’s choice of a particular family through whom He promises to bless the nations. Contents—The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide the universal setting for Israel’s story. Taking up themes and motifs prominent in the literature of their neighbors, the inspired writer showed how only one God participated in creation of the whole world and in directing the fortunes of all its nations. The focus narrows from creation of the universe to creation of the first family (1:1-2:25). Trust in a wily serpent rather than in God brings sin into the world and shows God’s judgment on sin. Thus human life is lived out in the suffering, pain, and frustration of the world we know (ch. 3). In that world God continues to condemn sin, bless faithfulness, and yet show grace to sinners (4:1-15). From the human perspective, great cultural achievements appear, but so does overwhelming human pride (4:16-24). Thus humans multiply their race as God commanded; they also look for a better life than that of pain and toil (4:25-5:32). Help comes, but only after further punishment. Through the flood, God eliminates all humanity except the family of Noah, then makes a covenant with that family never again to bring such punishment (6:1-9:17), but human sin continues on the individual and the societal levels, bringing necessary divine punishment of the nations at the tower of Babel (9:18-11:9). God thus establishes a plan to redeem and bless the humanity that persists in sin. He calls one man of faith—Abraham—and leads him to a new beginning in a new land. He gives His promises of land, nation, fame, and a mission of blessing for the nations. This works itself out in blessing nations that help Abraham and punishing those who do not. It climaxes in God’s covenant with Abraham in which Abraham shows faithfulness in the sign of circumcision and God renews His promises.
New generations led by Isaac and Jacob find God continuing to lead them, to call them to be His people, and to renew His promises to them. Human trickery and deception personified in Jacob do not alter God’s determination to carry out His redemptive plan. Even when crafty Jacob appears to meet his match while returning to Abraham’s homeland, God leads him back to the Promised Land and back to safety. Reconciliation with his brother Esau is followed by deception on the part of his sons. They sell favored brother Joseph into slavery in Egypt. There God mysteriously works even in a prison cell to raise Joseph to power, demonstrating His authority over the highest political authority of the world. Finally, the family is reunited in Egypt and look forward to God’s deliverance so they can return to the land of promise.
Thus is established the heritage of God’s people in the triad of patriarchal fathers—Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. God’s promises and revelation to them became the foundation of Israel’s religious experience and hope. See Creation; Flood; Sin; Humanity; Anthropology; Earth; Image of God; Abraham; Isaac; Jacob; Joseph; Adam and Eve; Noah; Names of God; God of the Fathers. Critical Problems—Critical scholars have raised many questions as they have sought reverently to study and understand the Book of Genesis. Comparison with other creation and flood stories, especially those coming from Sumeria, Babylon, and Assyria, have shown striking similarities to the biblical narrative. Why does the biblical account follow the same basic outline of other creation and flood narratives? Has one copied the other? Does God inspire a writer to react to other literature and write the authentic version? What role does oral tradition play in one nation learning of the literature of another nation? The least that can be said is that Israel’s creation and flood narratives present a consistent picture of a sovereign God concerned with and in control of all nations. It shows a realistic picture of humanity in their great strengths and weaknesses. It has proven itself true through the centuries and millennia, whereas the other stories have become relics of a past civilization, recovered only by the accident of the archaeologists’ spadework.
Genesis has given rise to theories of the origin and compilation of the book and of the Pentateuch or first five books of the Bible. Do use of later names such as land of the Philistines (Gen. 21:32), closely resembling, almost duplicate stories (12:10-20; 20:1-18; 26:1-11), the use of different names for God (Yahweh in ch. 15; Elohim in ch. 17), the use of different facts (man made with woman in 1:27 but man made, then the animals, then woman in ch. 2) point to different authors of parts of the book, sources used by an author, or literary and theological techniques used to deliver the divine message?
In the 1960s many scholars thought they had reached agreement on the answers. The 1980s opened the questions anew with widely differing theories. The theories each try to explain how God produced and provided this book. The constant fact is that Genesis is both a classic piece of literature and the word of God inspired to teach His people about Him, His plan of redemption, and the nature of the world and people He created.
Teachings A brief article can merely list a few of the important teachings of Genesis. Human reflection upon the book from the point of its origin onward has not completely understood its theological richness and its call to covenant faithfulness and hope. God is Creator and Redeemer. He provided the best of all possible worlds for the best of all possible creatures, humanity created in His image. Human sin, inspired by a tempting part of the creation, brought divine judgment, resulting in the world of pain, labor, and frustration we now experience.
God is Judge and Savior. He takes human sin seriously but works constantly to form permanent relationships with people of faith. He calls people to follow and serve Him, promising them blessings suited for their needs and His purposes. God’s judgment is limited by His covenant promises. God’s salvation is limited only by human refusal to trust and believe. People of faith are not perfect. They deceive and connive, but they leave themselves open to God’s leadership and become instruments of His plan.
God is universal sovereign and individual God. He created and directs the nations, blessing and cursing according to His purposes. He reveals Himself to, calls, enters into covenant with, and promises to bless individual people. Such work with individuals is part of His plan to bless nations.
GODLINESS—An attitude and style of life that acknowledges God’s claims on human life and seeks to live in accordance with God’s will. In pagan Greek sources eusebeia (godliness, piety) refers to worship of the gods and to respect for the representatives of institutions regarded as divinely ordained (parents, judges, the emperor). Eusebeia was sometimes distinguished from dikaiosyne (righteousness) as concerning one’s relationship with the gods rather than with other persons.
Acts 3:12 contrasts "piety" with faith in the name of Jesus, the real source of healing. Acts uses the adjective godly to describe religiously observant Gentiles (10:2, 7; 17:23).
Only 1, 2 Timothy, Titus, and 2 Peter use words with the euseb- root for Christian piety. Individuals can be trained in godliness (1 Tim. 4:7). Godly teaching (1 Tim. 6:3) is that which results in godly lives (Tit. 1:1). False teachers sought to make their godliness a source of financial gain (1 Tim. 6:5). When "godliness" appears in lists with other virtues, it perhaps retains its earlier sense of respect for God and divinely ordained institutions (1 Tim. 6:11; Titus 2:12; 2 Peter 1:3-7). The form of godliness lacking the power of godliness (2 Tim. 3:5) likely refers to professed godliness that failed to shape moral lives since the profession was not accompanied by a vital relationship with God.
GOSPEL is the English word used to translate the Greek word for "good news." Christians use the word to designate the message and story of God’s saving activity through the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of God’s unique Son Jesus. Although "gospel" translates a Greek word from the New Testament, the concept of good news itself finds its roots in the Hebrew language of the Old Testament.
GRACE— Undeserved acceptance and love received from another, especially the characteristic attitude of God in providing salvation for sinners. For Christians, the word "grace" is virtually synonymous with the gospel of God’s gift of unmerited salvation in Jesus Christ. To express this, the New Testament writers used the Greek word charis, which had a long previous history in secular Greek. Related to the word for joy or pleasure, charis originally referred to something delightful or attractive in a person, something which brought pleasure to others. From this it came to have the idea of a favor or kindness done to another or of a gift which brought pleasure to another. Viewed from the standpoint of the recipient, it was used to refer to the thankfulness felt for a gift or favor. These meanings also appear in the biblical use of charis, but only in the New Testament does it come to have the familiar sense which "grace" bears for Christians.
Holiness—The idea of holiness is expressed here chiefly by the word and its derivatives, which correspond very closely to the words of the group in Hebrew, and are employed to render them in the Septuagint. The distinctive feature of the New Testament idea of holiness is that the external aspect of it has almost entirely disappeared, and the ethical meaning has become supreme. The ceremonial idea still exists in contemporary Judaism, and is typically represented by the Pharisees (Mk 7:1-13; Lk 18:11 f). But Jesus proclaimed a new view of religion and morality according to which men are cleansed or defiled, not by anything outward, but by the thoughts of their hearts (Mt 15:17-20), and God is to be worshipped neither in Samaria nor Jerusalem, but wherever men seek Him in spirit and in truth (Jn 4:21-24). Applied to Christians—But it is especially in its application to Christians that the idea of holiness meets us in the New Testament in a sense that is characteristic and distinctive. Christ’s people are regularly called "saints" or holy persons, and holiness in the high ethical and spiritual meaning of the word is used to denote the appropriate quality of their life and conduct.
AS SEPARATE FROM THE WORLD
No doubt, as applied to believers, "saints" conveys in the first place the notion of a separation from the world and a consecration to God. Just as Israel under the old covenant was a chosen race, so the Christian church in succeeding to Israel’s privileges becomes a holy nation (1 Pet 2:9), and the Christian individual, as one of the elect people, becomes a holy man or woman (Col 3:12). In Paul’s usage all baptized persons are "saints," however far they may still be from the saintly character (compare 1 Cor 1:2, 14 with 5:1ff).
HOLY—A characteristic unique to God’s nature which becomes the goal for human moral character. The idea of "holy" is important for an understanding of God, of worship, and of the people of God in the Bible. Holy has four distinct meanings. First is "to be set apart." This applies to places where God is present, like the Temple and the tabernacle, and to things and persons related to those holy places or to God Himself. Next, it means to be "perfect, transcendent, or spiritually pure, evoking adoration and reverence." This applies primarily to God, but secondarily to saints or godly people. Next, it means something or someone who evokes "veneration or awe, being frightening beyond belief." This is clearly the application to God and is the primary meaning of "holy." It is continued in the last definition, "filled with superhuman and potential fatal power." This speaks of God, but also of places or things or persons which have been set apart by God’s presence. A saint is a holy person. To be sanctified is to be made holy. In the Old Testament "holy" is important in the parts related to priests and worship such as the Book of Leviticus, especially chapter 16. It is found in the prophets: Isaiah’s title for God, "the Holy One of Israel," and the adoration of the Seraphim in Isaiah 6. The word is also found repeatedly in the Psalms. God is holy. Fire is the symbol of holy power. Jealousy, wrath, remoteness, cleanliness, glory, and majesty are related to it. He is unsearchable, incomprehensible, incomparable, great, wonderful, and exalted. His name is Holy.
Holiness is in tension with relational personhood. Holiness tends toward separation and uniqueness. Personhood determines relations and close communion. Holiness inspires awe and fear. Personhood inspires love and the wish to be near. Both are in the Bible as necessary ways to think of and experience God. Both are necessary if one is to avoid shallow, one-sided thinking about God. Neither holiness nor personhood alone can do justice to the biblical portrayal of God. Both in their mutual tension help capture a more adequate doctrine and experience of God.
The biblical view combines these. Leviticus 17-25 presents all laws to be kept so that persons may be holy as God is holy. Holiness in God is seen as moral perfection in Psalm 89:35. Holiness in believing Christians was attained through the cross and is to be preserved in clean and moral living. Holiness comes to imply the fullness and completeness of God and godliness in all its facets and meanings.
Thus "holy" defines the godness of God. It also defines places where God is present. For the holy God to be present among His people special holy places were set apart where God and people could safely come together. The tabernacle and Temple filled this purpose. Special restrictions on access were established for the safety of the worshipers. Rules of sacrifice and cleanliness helped them prepare for this contact. A special place, the holy of holies, was completely cut off from common access. Only the high priest could enter there, and then only once a year after special preparation. Holy also applied to persons who were to meet God. The priests had to undergo special rites that sanctified and purified them for service in the Temple. God wanted all His people to share His presence. They had to be instructed in the character and actions what would accomplish that. The Holiness Code (Lev. 17-25) commands the people to obey God’s laws in all parts of life in order to be "holy: for I the Lord your God am holy" (19:2). Here holiness is seen to include a moral character as well as cultic purity. Sin and disobedience works the opposite and has to be cleansed or atoned by sacrifice (Lev. 1-7; 16).
An understanding of holiness is needed for New Testament study to appreciate the cross and the results of God’s work through the cross. The Gospels make clear that Jesus came to save His people from their sins (Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:31-35). The crucifixion is portrayed as Christ shedding His blood and giving His body for the remission of sins (Matt. 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:19-20). Faith in Christ is portrayed as acceptance of His full atonement for sin (1 John 2:2; 3:5; Rev. 5:9).
The Holy Spirit is the agent of holiness for the church and its leaders (Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 13:2-4). He keeps the church pure (Acts 5:1-11). He promotes holiness in its members (1 Cor. 6:19; 1 Thess. 4:7).
Christians are called to holy living (1 Cor. 1:2; 3:17). They are saints who lead godly, righteous lives. Being sanctified, or made holy, is a work of the Holy Spirit on the basis of Christ's atonement that calls for obedient submission from those who have been saved. Christians are holy because of their calling in Christ, because of His atonement for their sins, and because of the continual ministrations of the Holy Spirit. They are holy inasmuch as they receive and submit to these saving and sanctifying agents.
by John D. W. Watts
HOLY ONE OF ISRAEL—In Isaiah 1:4, a designation for Yahweh. The title stresses God’s nature as holy and His unique relationship to Israel. In the Old Testament, this designation is used especially in the Book of Isaiah. In the New Testament Jesus is referred to as the Holy One. See God; Holy.
HOLY SPIRIT—The mysterious third Person of the Trinity through whom God acts, reveals His will, empowers individuals, and discloses His personal presence in the Old and New Testament. OLD TESTAMENT—The term "Holy Spirit" in the Old Testament is found only in Psalm 51:11; Isaiah 63:10-11. References to the spirit of God, however, are abundant. In one sense the Spirit of God is depicted as a mighty wind, Hebrew using the same word ruach for wind, breath, and spirit. During the time of the Exodus, God deployed this wind to part the sea thus enabling the Israelites to pass through safely and elude Pharaoh and his army (Ex. 14:21). God used this agent in two ways: as a destructive force that dries up the waters (Hos. 13:15), or as the power of God in gathering clouds to bring the refreshing rain (1 Kings 18:45). The spirit exercised control over the chaotic waters at the beginning of creation (Gen. 1:2; 8:1; Compare Ps. 33:6; Job 26:13). Of the eighty-seven times that the Spirit is described as wind, thirty-seven describe the wind as the agent of God, mostly baneful, and ever strong and intense. This property of the Spirit clearly reflects the power of God. An additional quality of the Spirit is that of mysteriousness. Psalm 104:3 demonstrates that the Spirit as wind is able to transport God on its wings to the outer limits of the earth. No one can tell where He has been or where He is going. Power and mystery state the nature of God.
God’s Spirit can be expressed as an impersonal force, or it can manifest itself in individuals. The Old Testament has numerous examples when God inspired the prophets indirectly by the Spirit. The prime revelation of the Spirit in the Old Testament, in the personal sense, is by means of prophecy. Joseph’s dreams are perceived to be divinely inspired (Gen. 41:38); King David, as a mouthpiece for God, proclaimed that "the Spirit of the Lord speaks" (2 Sam. 23:2); and Zechariah announced the word of the Lord to Zerubbabel, "Not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit,’ saith the Lord of Hosts" (Zech. 4:6). Much like the power of the wind, the Spirit equipped the heroes of Israel with extraordinary strength (Judg. 14:6). The judges are described as being Spirit-possessed individuals as in the case of Othniel (Judg. 3:10). Sometimes, The Spirit came upon individuals mightily, so as to alter their normal behavior (1 Sam. 10:16; 19:23-24).
The Spirit is also the ultimate origin of all mental and spiritual gifts, as it is in the underlying inspiration of the men of wisdom (Ex. 31:1-6; Isa. 11:2; Job 4:15; 32:8). Not only did the prophets benefit from the influence of the Spirit, but also the Spirit will be shed upon the people of God (Isa. 44:3) and upon all the people (Joel 2:28). Ezekiel and Isaiah express the idea of the Spirit more than any other Old Testament source. Many of Ezekiel’s allusions to the Spirit are in regard to Israel’s restoration in the future. The reception of the new Spirit, prophesied in Ezekiel and Jeremiah, is dependent upon repentance (Ezek. 18:31) and is associated with the creation of a new heart (Jer. 31:31-34). This prophetic foreshadowing, in light of the individual, sporadic, and temporary manifestation of the Spirit in the Old Testament, looked forward to a time when the Spirit of God would revitalize His chosen people, empower the Messiah, and be lavishly poured out on all humankind. New Testament When John the Baptist burst on the scene proclaiming the advent of the kingdom of God, the spirit-inspired prophetic voice returned after a 400-year absence. Zechariah and Elizabeth, John’s parents, were informed that their son will "be filled with the Holy Ghost, even from his mother’s womb" (Luke 1:15). Similarly, the angel Gabriel visited Mary with the news that "The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest will overshadow thee: therefore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee will be called the Son of God" (1:35).
A watershed in biblical history occurred at the event of Jesus’ baptism when He was anointed by the Spirit of God (3:22). The Holy Spirit was then responsible for thrusting Jesus out into the wilderness to undergo temptation (4:1-13). Luke has many more references to the Holy Spirit than do the other synoptic accounts. This can be accounted for by Luke’s theological interests which are extended in the Acts of the Apostles, which has been rightly named "The Acts of the Holy Spirit" because of the prominence given to the Spirit.
All apostolic writers witnessed to the reality of the Spirit in the church; however, the apostle Paul, who wrote more than any other author, offers the most theological reflection on the subject. The main chapters to consult are Romans 8; 1 Corinthians 2; 12-14; 2 Corinthians 3; and Galatians 5.
Johannine theology is rich in its doctrine of the Spirit. In the Gospel of John, the Spirit possesses Christ (1:32-33); is indicative of the new birth (3:1-16); will come upon Jesus’ departure (16:7-11); and will endow the believer after the resurrection (20:22). The Christian community is anointed by the Spirit (1 John 2:20); and the Spirit assures the believer of the indwelling presence of Jesus (1 John 3:24). In the prophetic Book of Revelation, John, in Old Testament fashion, depicted himself as a prophet inspired by the Spirit. See God.
by Paul Jackson
JESUS CHRIST (Jee' zuhs krist)— Greek form of Joshua and of title meaning, "Yahweh is salvation" and "the anointed one" or "Messiah." Proper name of the Savior of the world. The title "Christ" gathers all of the Old Testament prophetic hopes and infuses into them the meaning associated with the proper name Jesus, Man of Galilee—Man of sorrows. Jesus is the clearest picture of God the world has ever seen—that is the affirmation of believing hearts. In Jesus Christ are united the vertical of God’s revelation and the horizontal of history’s meaning. Christians see in this one proper name a conjunction of God and man.
The believers of the New Testament did not first "read" Jesus Christ chronologically. That is, they did not set down to construct a doctrine called Christology that would move from preexistence to parousia (final coming). Rather, they were caught up in the historical reality of what God was doing for them and all the world through Jesus Christ. Looking at the different episodes of the Christ event should show the New Testament understanding of Jesus, God’s Christ.
JUSTIFICATION—Process by which an individual is brought into an unmerited, right relationship with a person, whether that relationship is established between people or with God. New Testament—The New Testament’s posture, with respect to the idea of justification, is also dependent on the concrete activity of God. The major difference is that, in the New Testament, God dealt with the sin of humankind by the highest and most intimate form of revelation, His Son Jesus Christ. The earliest Christians believed that they were "made right" with God through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:21-26; 4:18-25; 1 Cor. 1:30; 6:11; 1 Tim. 3:16; 1 Pet. 3:18). In his letter to the Romans, Paul conveyed the message that God did not consider sin lightly. Sin created a massive gulf between God and people. This gulf required a bridge to bring all of humanity into a right relationship with God. Theologians call God’s bridge building "reconciliation." Reconciliation functions to bring humans "justification." The main character who effected this divine plan was Jesus Christ. Uniquely, His death on the cross made it possible for God and people to be reconciled (Rom. 5:10) and thus for humans to be justified.
Not found in the Old Testament, justification is almost as scarce in the New Testament, occurring only three times (Rom. 4:25; 5:16, 18). The necessity of justification, however, is sufficiently expressed by Paul in Romans 5:12-21. Paul advanced this theme of sin and its effects no doubt with the story of Genesis 3 in mind. Paul described sin almost as a personal power controlling people, preventing them from obeying God, and leading them to death. No one is excluded from sin’s domain. All people are in the deplorable state of being separated from God due to sin. All people desperately need deliverance. The redemptive activity of Christ provides the only avenue to a right relationship with God.
Justification does not encompass the whole salvation process; it does, however, mark that instantaneous point of entry or transformation which makes one "right with God." Christians are justified in the same way Abraham was, by faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1). Human works do not achieve or earn acceptance by God. The exercise of faith alone ushers us into a right, unmerited relationship with God (Gal. 2:16; Titus 3:7). Biblically, the spiritual journey begins at the point of justification. This immediate act has far-reaching consequences. It establishes the future. God in the present moment announces the verdict He will pronounce on the day of final judgment. He declares that trusting faith in Jesus Christ puts people in the right with God, bringing eternal life now and forever.
Paul taught that faith in Jesus Christ is an obedient response which results from hearing the Gospel (Rom. 10:17). He drew a connection between the Christian's faith and the faith of Abraham. Abraham’s faith in God can be seen as an exemplary foreshadowing which would find ultimate expression in every Christian relationship to God through Jesus Christ.
Two related questions present themselves for consideration: (1) What is the relationship between faith and Old Testament law?, and (2) What is the relationship between faith and works? Paul found no room in his theology for an elitist righteousness. Special privileges were not administered by God in direct proportion to blood (nationality), brawn (strength), or brains (intellect). No justification within the law would allow anyone (Jew or not) to sidestep faith in Jesus Christ. Paul eliminated all doubt when he argued that being a Jew is neither a prerequisite (Rom. 4:1-25) nor a prerogative (9:1-33) for justification. The only stipulation, accessible to all, is faith.
Some confusion results when a comparison is made between faith and works. Paul is not the only adherent or spokesman for the doctrine of justification by faith. The apostle James, among others, taught this crucial doctrine also. However, premature appraisals of James 2:14-26 have caused some to see a contradiction in comparison with Paul’s instruction. Nothing is further from the truth. The two writers merely expressed different concerns. James’ idea of faith summarily eliminated all instances of imagined belief which had no observable or corresponding behavior. Paul’s concept of faith emphasized a shift of focus from the world to Jesus Christ on the part of the believer. It was a reorientation which resulted in good works (see Rom. 12). By God’s grace we are offered salvation, which we accept by faith. This faith results in a radical change of our natures (2 Cor. 5:17) in order that we might do good works. See Paul; James; Reconciliation; Faith; Eternal Life.
by Paul Jackson
LOVE—Unselfish, loyal, and benevolent concern for the well-being of another. In 1 Corinthians 13, Paul described "love" as a "more excellent way" than tongues or even preaching. The New Testament maintains this estimation of love throughout. The King James Version uses the word charity instead of "love" to translate the Greek word Paul used (agape). The word charity comes from the Latin caritas which means "dearness," "affection," or "high regard." Today, the word charity is normally used for acts of benevolence, and so the word love is to be preferred as a translation of agape. Nevertheless, the reader who comes to the agape of the New Testament with the idea of benevolence in mind is better off than the reader who comes with the idea of physical pleasure and satisfaction.
MERCY, MERCIFUL—A personal characteristic of care for the needs of others. The biblical concept of mercy always involves help to those who are in need or distress. Such help covers a broad range, from assistance in finding a bride to God’s forgiveness of sin. A wide vocabulary is employed in the original languages to express these concepts, and an even wider vocabulary is found in English translations.
MESSIAH (Mehs si' uh)— Transliteration of Hebrew word meaning, “anointed one” that was translated into Greek as Christos. See Christ, Christology. Since apostolic times the name Christ has become the proper name of Jesus, the Person whom Christians recognize as the God-given Redeemer of Israel and the church’s Lord. “Christ” or Messiah is therefore a name admirably suited to express both the church’s link with Israel through the Old Testament and the faith that sees in Jesus Christ the worldwide scope of the salvation in Him.
PATRIARCHS—Israel’s founding fathers–Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and the twelve sons of Jacob (Israel). The word patriarch comes from a combination of the Latin word pater, "father," and the Greek verb archo, "to rule." A patriarch is thus a ruling ancestor who may have been the founding father of a family, a clan, or a nation.
The idea of a binding agreement between God and humankind antedated the patriarchs, being first expressed in the time of Noah (Gen. 6:18; 9:8-17). The growth of the Hebrew nation was promised specifically to Abraham in the patriarchal covenant (Gen. 15; 17), along with the provision of a land in which Abraham’s offspring would dwell. Since several generations elapsed before this situation developed, the covenant with Abraham must be regarded as promissory. The promises made to Abraham established the concept of a people descended through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who would be in a special historical and spiritual relationship with God. See Covenant.
Abraham, or Abram as he was called in the earlier chapters of Genesis, was a ninth-generation descendant of Shem, son of Noah. Abram’s father Terah was born in Ur of the Chaldees, as were his brothers Nahor and Haran (Gen. 11:26, 28). See Shem; Terah; Ur.
Just why Terah left Ur with his family is not stated, but it may have been to seek new pastures for the flocks and herds. They journeyed to Haran, several hundred miles northwest. After living there for some time, Terah died. Abram was 75 at the time, and responded to God’s call to migrate to Canaan, where he would become the founder of a great nation. God’s promises were not fulfilled immediately.
As Abram moved along the trading routes leading to Shechem, Bethel, and the Hebron area and mingled with the pagan Canaanites, God’s promise that the childless Sarai would bear a son could only be accepted by faith. Yet God was with them, and saved Sarai from the amorous attentions of Pharaoh (Gen. 12:15-20) and Abimelech (Gen. 20:1-18). During this period Abram managed to retain his dignity and his position as a wealthy owner of flocks. When Lot was taken prisoner by a number of local rulers, Abram mustered a rescue party and was recognized for his leadership (Gen. 14:14-19) by the kings of Sodom and Salem.
When Abram proposed to appoint Eliezer of Damascus as his heir (Gen. 15:2), God entered into a formal covenant with Abram and promised him vast amounts of land for his descendants. Then Abram, apparently impatient for an heir, took Sarai’s handmaid Hagar as a concubine, following Mesopotamian custom, because Sarai continued childless. From this union came Ishmael, who was born when Abram was 86. See Ishmael. Later God renewed His covenant with Abram and instituted the sign of circumcision for Abram’s household. He promised Abraham and Sarah a son.
Before the baby was conceived, Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. Sarah subsequently bore Abraham the promised son: Isaac.
To test Abraham’s faith, God ordered him to sacrifice Isaac as a burnt offering on a mountain in Moriah, some distance from Beersheba. Whatever his own misgivings, Abraham obeyed God’s instructions, and at the last moment a sacrificial ram was provided, while God’s angel praised Abraham for his obedience and faith. Sometime later Sarah died and was buried on land belonging to a group of Hittites’ living at Mamre in Hebron (Gen. 23).
Although advanced in years, Abraham married a woman named Keturah, who bore him six children. Before his death Abraham gave gifts to his concubine’s sons, and sent them away from Canaan. The aged patriarch died aged 175 years, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah purchased originally for Sarah’s interment (Gen. 25:9).
At an early period, Abraham had testified that God was the Most High God (Gen. 14:22), the righteous Judge of humankind (Gen. 15:14), and the Guarantor of the covenant of promise. He experienced close communion with God (Gen. 18:33; 24:40) and worshipped Him consistently to the exclusion of all other gods. His fidelity and obedience were characteristic features of his personality and made this renowned forefather of Israel (compare Rom. 4:1-4) an example of the way in which men and women are justified before God. See Abraham; Nuzi.
The line of descent by which the covenant was to be perpetuated consisted solely of Abraham’s son Isaac; through him the covenant promises were continued. Isaac’s name is generally thought to mean "laughter," but it possibly also conveys the more subtle sense of "joker." It commemorated the occasion when both Abraham and Sarah laughed at God’s promise to provide them with a son in their old age (Gen. 17:17-19; 18:9-15).
We have very little information about the maturing years of Isaac except that he was used as the supreme test of Abraham’s faith in the covenant promises. Under the patriarchal system, the father had the power of life or death over every living person and thing in his household. At the very moment that Isaac’s life was about to be taken, his position as covenant heir was safeguarded by the provision of an alternative sacrificial offering (Gen. 22:9-13). The circumstances attending his marriage to Rebekah afforded Isaac great comfort after the death of his mother (Gen. 24:67). Isaac prayed earnestly to God for covenant heirs, and in due time Rebekah became pregnant with twins when Isaac was 60 years old. Esau grew up to be a hunter, while Jacob followed the more sedentary life-style of his father by supervising the family’s flocks and herds, moving with them when it was necessary to find fresh pasture (Gen. 25:27). Isaac unfortunately provoked sibling rivalry by favoring Esau above Jacob. The former brought his father tasty venison, whereas Jacob’s culinary expertise seems only to have extended to preparing lentil soup (Gen. 25:28-29). In a moment of desperate hunger, Esau traded his birthright for some of Jacob’s soup, thereby transferring to his brother a double portion of Isaac’s estate as well as other rights.
In old age, Isaac’s sight failed; and, when it became apparent that Esau might inherit the extra birthright provision after all, Rebekah conspired with her favorite son Jacob to deceive Isaac into blessing him rather than Esau. The success of the scheme made Esau extremely angry. To escape his vengeance Jacob fled to Mesopotamia on his father’s instructions. Before he arrived he received a revelation from God which confirmed his inheritance in the covenant. Jacob later encountered the family of Laban, son of Nahor, and in due course married two of Laban’s daughters. After some years absence Jacob finally returned to Mamre, where his father was living, and along with Esau buried him when he died aged 180 years.
Isaac’s life, though less spectacular than Abraham’s, was nevertheless marked by divine favor. He was circumcised as a sign of covenant membership, and owed his life to timely divine intervention when a youth (Gen. 22:12-14). He was obedient to God’s will (Gen. 22:6, 9), a man of devotion and prayer (Gen. 26:25), and a follower of peace (Gen. 26:20-23). He fulfilled his role as a child of promise (Gal. 4:22-23). See Isaac.
The life of Jacob, the last of the three great patriarchs, was marked by migrations, as had been the case with his ancestors. Although he lived successively at Shechem (Gen. 33:18-20), Bethel 35:6-7), and Hebron (Gen. 35:27), Jacob was basically a resident alien who did not have a capital city. His experience of God at Bethel caused him to dedicate the site to the Lord, and on his return he erected an altar there (Gen. 35:6-15).
Jacob’s title as supplanter was fulfilled most noticeably in his dealings with his twin brother Esau. Yet in other respects he was described commendably by comparison with Esau, the semi-nomadic skilled hunter, as being a "quiet" (RSV) man. The Hebrew word (Gen. 25:27; "plain," KJV) has unfortunately been translated badly, because it means one who has all sides of his personality developed, and is the Hebrew equivalent of the "perfect" person which Christ urged His followers to be (Matt. 5:48).
The deception which Jacob perpetrated upon his father and Esau made Jacob afraid of his brother for many years. Ironically, Jacob himself was the victim of deception by Laban of Nahor, a stubborn and greedy men.
Jacob’s relationships with his wives were complicated when Leah gave birth to a total of six sons and a daughter (Gen. 30:20-21), whereas Rachel remained childless for years. The situation improved slightly for Rachel when Jacob, following Abraham’s example, had two sons by Bilhah, Rachel’s maid (Gen. 30:3-8). Not to be outdone, Leah also gave her handmaid Zilpah to Jacob, and she bore him two sons. Finally, Rachel conceived and bore Jacob a son named Joseph, who as a son of Jacob’s old age was to become his favorite.
By this time Jacob’s flocks had increased as well as his family. Meanwhile Laban’s two daughters felt that they, as well as their husband Jacob, were being treated badly by Laban (Gen. 31:15), and all of them plotted to leave Paddan-Aram quietly. Laban pursued them, hoping to regain what he rightfully regarded as his own property. God intervened in a night vision, and a restrained Laban made a covenant of peace with Jacob.
Perhaps the greatest crisis in Jacob’s adult life was that of his reconciliation with Esau (Gen. 32). When Jacob finally met his brother, he observed all the traditional courtesies and was reunited with Esau in a tearful greeting. Esau accepted Jacob’s gift after the usual denial of need and offered to escort Jacob home. Jacob declined and moved to Succoth, an ancient settlement in Transjordan where he stayed for a time before moving to more permanent quarters in Shechem (Gen. 33:18).
Just before Isaac’s death, God appeared again to Jacob (Gen. 35:9) and renewed the promise of his new name. Jacob resided in Canaan thereafter, and only left when a famine overtook the land. Jacob and his sons were invited to live in Egypt by Joseph. As his life drew to a close Jacob, like his father Isaac, became blind; but he blessed his sons by means of a spoken last will and testament, after which he died peacefully. His body was embalmed in the Egyptian manner, and he was buried subsequently in the cave of Machpelah along with his ancestors (Gen. 49:30-50:13). Despite his apparent materialism, Jacob was a person of deep spirituality who, like Abraham, was esteemed highly by his pagan neighbors. Despite his fears, he behaved honorably and correctly in dealing with his avaricious father-in-law Laban and was equally consistent in fulfilling his vow to return to Bethel. Jacob trusted the God whom he had seen at Peniel to implement the covenant promises through him; and when he died, he left behind a clearly burgeoning nation. See Jacob.
Archaeological discoveries at certain Near Eastern sites have helped to illumine the background of the patriarchal narratives. See Archaeology; Nuzi.
The date of the patriarchal period has been much discussed. A time before 2000 B.C. (Early Bronze Age) seems too early and cannot be supported easily by reference to current archaeological evidence. The Middle Bronze period (2000-1500 B.C.) seems more promising because of contemporary archaeological parallels and also because many of the Negeb irrigation systems date from that period. Some scholars have suggested the Amarna period (1500-1300 B.C.) as the one in which the patriarchs lived, but this presents problems for any dating for the Exodus. The same objection applies to a Late Bronze Age (1500-1200 B.C.) period for the patriarchs. The least likely date is in the Judges period or the time of king David. All such dates do not allow time for the patriarchal traditions to have developed and make it impossible for Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob to be fitted realistically into an already-known chronology. A date in the Middle Bronze Age seems to offer the most suitable solution to a complex problem of dating.
R. K. Harrison
PENTATEUCH (Pehn' tuh teuhkh)—First five books of Old Testament. The word Pentateuch comes from two Greek words Penta "five" and teuchos meaning "box," "jar," or "scroll." Originally the word was used as an adjective meaning "a five-scrolled (book)." The common Jewish arrangement calls the first five books of the Hebrew Bible Torah, law or teaching. The early church fathers beginning with Tertullian (about A.D. 200) called them the Pentateuch. The fivefold division of the Pentateuch is older than the Septuagint or earliest Greek translation (about 200 B.C.). The Hebrew names of these five scrolls come mainly from the opening word(s) of each scroll. Genesis is called bereshith, "in beginning"; Exodus, we'elleh shemoth, "These are the names"; Leviticus, wayyikra, "and he called"; Numbers, bemidbar, "in the Wilderness"; and Deuteronomy, elleh haddebarim, "These are the words." The names of the books in the English Bible, come through the Latin from the Greek Septuagint and are intended to be descriptive of the contents of each book. Genesis means "generation" or "origin"; Exodus means "going out"; Leviticus refers to the Levitical system; Numbers refers to the numbering of the tribes, Levites, and first born (chs. 1-4, 26); and Deuteronomy means "second law" (17:18).
The dividing lines between the individual books of the Pentateuch generally mark a change in the direction of the materials. At the end of Genesis (ch. 50), the stories of the Patriarchs end, and the story of the people of Israel begins in Exodus 1. The division between Exodus and Leviticus marks the change from the building of the tabernacle in Exodus 35-40 to the inauguration of worship (Lev. 1-10). Numbers begins with preparation for leaving Sinai, and Deuteronomy stands out sharply from the end of Numbers in that Deuteronomy 1:1 begins the great speech of Moses which covers thirty chapters (Deut. 1-30). We do not know when the Pentateuch was divided into five books. The division may have taken place only when the whole material now united within it had been incorporated into one unit and that this division was aimed at producing sections of approximately equal length, corresponding to the normal length of scrolls.
PENTECOST (Pehn' tih kawst)—Jewish festival at which Holy Spirit came on early church. See Festivals; Spirit.
Spirit—New Testament Teaching–Each of the four Gospels has numerous references to the Spirit of God or the Holy Spirit. The Spirit was the agent of Jesus’ miraculous conception (Matt. 1:18, 20), came down on Jesus at His baptism (Matt. 3:16), led Him into the wilderness where He was tempted by the devil (Matt. 4:1), and enabled Him to heal diseases and cast out demons (Matt. 12:28). Jesus promised the Spirit to His followers as He prepared to leave the world. The Spirit would serve as Comforter and Counselor, continuing to teach Jesus’ followers and reminding them of what He had said to them (John 14:25-26). Not many days after Jesus’ ascension, the promised Spirit came upon His followers during the Feast of Pentecost. The advent of the Spirit was accompanied by a sound that was like a mighty wind. Those who witnessed this event saw what seemed to be tongues of fire resting on the believers. Moreover, these disciples were empowered to speak in tongues other than their native language (Acts 2:1-3). Throughout Luke’s account of the early church, the Holy Spirit empowered and guided the followers of Jesus in their mission to the world surrounding the Mediterranean (Acts 11:12; 13:2; 15:28; 16:6-7; 20:22; 21:11).
The Spirit is important in Paul’s understanding of the believer’s relationship to God. The Spirit is a gracious personal presence who lives in one who has confessed that Jesus Christ is Lord. Relationship to God through Christ by the Spirit is revolutionary. In Galatians, Paul argued that legalism and the way of faith are incompatible. God’s Spirit comes to us as a gift based on our faith in Christ and His grace. (Gal. 3:1-5). God’s Spirit comes into a believer’s life, with assurance that we are God’s children (Rom. 8:16). The Spirit is God’s pledge to us that we shall be fully transformed and conformed to the image of Christ. (Rom. 8:1-29; 2 Cor. 1:22). Paul identified the Spirit with the Lord (the risen Christ) and asserted that where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom, a growing freedom from the law of sin and death (2 Cor. 3:18; compare Rom. 8:2).
The Spirit distributes gifts in the church which are designed to equip God’s people for serving and building up the body of Christ (1 Cor. 12; Eph. 4:7-13). Evidence that the Spirit of God is at work in a person or group of persons is love, joy, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control (Gal. 5:22-23).
At the beginning of Scripture we see the Spirit at work in creation. As Scripture closes, the Spirit and the Bride, the church, issue an invitation for all who are thirsty to come and drink of the water of life (Rev. 22:17).
PROPHETS—Reception and declaration of a word from the Lord through a direct prompting of the Holy Spirit and the human instrument thereof. Old Testament Three key terms are used of the prophet. Ro'eh and hozeh are translated as "seer." The most important term, nabi, is usually translated "prophet." It probably meant "one who is called to speak."
RECONCILIATION (Reh kahn kih lee ay' shuhn)—The establishment of friendly relations between parties who are at variance with each other, making peace after an engagement in war, or readmission to the presence and favor of a person after rebellion against the person. In 1525 William Tyndale, in his translation of the New Testament from the Greek text, attempted to discover an English word that would express the true meaning of the Greek katallage as well as the Latin reconciliation. Unable to find the word, he coined one. The word he coined was atonement (at-one-ment), and he used it in Romans 5:11. The King James Version committee followed Tyndale and used atonement. More recent versions and translations have returned to "reconciliation," largely because the word atonement has been encumbered with various theories of atonement. New Testament— While the concept of reconciliation is prevalent throughout the New Testament, the term is found only in Paul’s Epistles (Rom. 5:10-21; 2 Cor. 5:18-20; Eph. 2:16; Col. 1:20-21; Rom. 11:15; 1 Cor. 7:11) and in Matthew 5:23-24. However, in Matthew a different preposition is used with the Greek verb. Paul saw the need for reconciliation of humans to oneself, other people, and the environment, but his chief interest was in a person being reconciled to God.
When Paul spoke of reconciliation between God and a person, nothing indicated that God had to change His attitude toward humanity. God was not angry at humanity. He did not demand satisfaction be given by someone because His honor and dignity had been degraded by a person or by humanity, nor did a person have to offer up sacrifice to placate His hostility.
Paul did not hint that the attitudes of God and humanity were mutually antagonistic. Hostility and estrangement had its origin in humans. Mankind through indifference, active enmity, and passive hatred had rebelled against God and stood in need of being reconciled to Him. God’s creatures defied the divine purpose for life and destroyed the fellowship for which they were intended. They substituted for the true foundation of fellowship a whole series of relationships which formed a kingdom of evil and promoted estrangement from God. Thus, all mankind came under the wrath of God (the situation that pertains when a person is alienated from God).
The Sovereign of the universe, who could rightfully annihilate us, took the initiative in breaking down the estranging barrier between Himself and us. In the Old Testament humans were the subject of the action in attempting to be restored to favor with God, the object. The New Testament reverses the action. God became the subject, and a person the object. Paul said, "All things are of God, who hath reconciled us to himself by Jesus Christ" (2 Cor. 5:18). In the same context he affirmed, "God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself" (2 Cor. 5:19). Again he argued, "If, when we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the death of his son, much more being reconciled, we shall be saved by his life" (Rom. 5:10). Reconciliation for Paul meant that a complete reversal of the relation between God and humans had been accomplished. Through His love manifested to us in the death of Christ on the cross even while we were in the state of being sinners, God delivered us from law, wrath, sin, and death—the tyrannies that hold humanity in check—and brought us by faith in Christ into a peaceful relationship with Himself.
The New Testament not only reveals God’s act of reconciliation in Christ, but it also exhorts us to be reconciled to fellow human beings. Since God has taken the initiative in removing our hostility toward Him, it is incumbent on us to take action in overcoming the enmity that exists between us and others. In the Sermon on the Mount Jesus taught that reconciliation with one’s brother was essential to genuine worship of God (Matt. 5:23-24). Paul in Ephesians 2:14-18 dramatically proclaimed that through the cross Christ reconciled both Gentile and Jew into one new humanity by terminating the hostility that existed between them. The church is commissioned to perform a ministry of reconciliation (2 Cor. 5:12-21). As the body of Christ, we have received the reconciling word, the command and power to be at peace with God and one another.
Paul used other words to express essentially the same concept. When we are reconciled to God, we have peace (Rom. 5:1; 1 Cor. 7:15; Gal. 5:22; Eph. 4:3; Phil. 4:7; Col. 3:15; 2 Thess. 3:16). No longer being alienated from God, we have freedom (Rom. 6:22; 8:2; Gal. 5:1) and sonship (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:5; Eph. 1:5). In Romans 5:8-10 and 2 Corinthians 5:17-21 reconciliation is used in conjunction with righteousness of God (justification). They both demonstrate an activity on the part of God in removing the barrier of sin that alienates people from God.
T. C. Smith
REDEMPTIVE, REDEEM, REDEMPTION, REDEEMER—To pay the required price to secure the release of a convicted criminal, the process therein involved, and the person making the payment. In early use the idea and the words related to legal and commercial activities. They provided biblical writers with one of the most basic and dynamic images for describing God’s saving activity toward mankind. Old Testament—Three Hebrew words express the legal and commercial use of the redemptive concept. Padah was used only in relation to the redemption of persons or other living beings. For example, if a person owned an ox which was known to be dangerous but did not keep the ox secured and the ox gored the son or daughter of a neighbor, both the ox and the owner would be stoned to death. If, however, the father of the slain person offered to accept an amount of money, the owner could pay the redemption price and live (Ex. 21:29-30; compare v. 32). Numbers 18:15-17 shows how religious practice adopted such language.
The Hebrew ga'al indicated a redemption price in family members involving the responsibility of a next-of-kin. See Kinsman. God called Jeremiah to demonstrate his confidence in God’s promise by going out from Jerusalem to his ancestral village, Anathoth, and acting as next-of-kin to redeem or ransom the family land by paying the redemption price for it (Jer. 32:6-15). Such commercial practices easily passed over into religious concepts. God would redeem Israel from her iniquities.
The third Hebrew word kipper or "cover" came to extensive use in strictly religious concepts and practices. It is the word from which "Kippur" is derived in "Yom Kippur," Day of Atonement, or Day of Covering, perhaps the most sacred of the holy days in Judaism. The verbal form in the Old Testament is always used in a religious sense such as the covering of sin or the making of atonement for sin. See Atonement. The noun form, however, is sometimes used in the secular sense of a bribe (Amos 5:12) or ransom (Ex. 21:30). In Psalm 49:7-8 it is used in the sense of ransom in association with padah (redeem).
The doctrine of redemption in the Old Testament is not derived from abstract philosophical thought but from Hebrew concrete thinking. Religious redemption language grows out of the custom of buying back something which formerly belonged to the purchaser but for some reason had passed into the ownership of another. The original owner could regain ownership by paying a redemption price for it. In the Old Testament the terms and ideas are frequently used symbolically to emphasize dramatically the redemptive or saving activity of God. The basic Old Testament reference is the Exodus. At the sea God redeemed His people from slavery in Egypt (for example, Ex. 6:6; 15:13; Deut. 7:8; Ps. 77:15).
God similarly redeemed Israel from the Babylonian captivity by giving Egypt, Ethiopia, and Seba to King Cyrus (Isa. 43:3; compare 48:20; 51:11; 62:12). Job knew that he had a living Redeemer (Job 19:25). Psalmists prayed for redemption from distress (26:11; 49:15) and testified to God’s redeeming work (31:5; 71:23; 107:2). The Old Testament witness is that God is "my strength and my redeemer" (Ps. 19:14). New Testament—The New Testament centers redemption in Jesus Christ. He purchased the church with His own blood (Acts 20:28), gave His flesh for the life of the world (John 6:51), as the Good Shepherd laid down His life for His sheep (John 10:11) and demonstrated the greatest love by laying down His life for His friends (John 15:13). The purpose of Jesus in the world was to make a deliberate sacrifice of Himself for human sin. He did something sinful people could not do for themselves. He brought hope to sinners, providing redemption from sin and fellowship with the Eternal Father. As the Suffering Servant, His was a costly sacrifice, the shameful and agonizing death of a Roman cross. New Testament redemption thus speaks of substitutionary sacrifice demonstrating divine love and righteousness. It points to a new relationship to God, the dynamic of a new life, God’s leniency in the past, and the call for humility for the future.
In other ways and language the centrality of redemption through the death of Jesus Christ is expressed throughout the New Testament from the Lamb of God who lifts up and carries away the sin of the world (John 1:29) to the redeeming Lamb praised by a multitude because He was slain and by His blood redeemed unto God’s people of every kindred, tongue, and nation (Rev. 5:8-14).
by Ray Summers
REGENERATION (Ree' gehn uhr ay' shuhn)—The radical spiritual change in which God brings an individual from a condition of spiritual defeat and death to a renewed condition of holiness and life. The biblical doctrine of regeneration emphasizes God’s role in making this spiritual change possible. Biblical Terms—The term regeneration (palingenesia) appears in Titus 3:5 as a description of the spiritual change which baptism symbolizes. The idea of regeneration is also conveyed by the use of other terms related to the idea of birth. Jesus referred to regeneration when he told Nicodemus (John 3:3) that he must be "born again" (gennao anothen). The term born again may also be translated as "born from above." This translation emphasizes the sovereign role of God in bringing about the experience of regeneration. In John 1:13 the term born (gennao) refers to the act of regeneration. In 1 Peter 1:23 another Greek word (anagennao) receives the translation "born again." All of these words describe the complete spiritual change which occurs when Christ enters the life of an individual.
The idea of regeneration also appears in other figures of speech which refer to concepts in addition to birth. When Paul described those in Christ as a "new creation" (2 Cor. 5:17 NIV), he was referring to the act of regeneration. In Ephesians 2:10 Paul referred to Christians as God’s "workmanship" made for the purpose of good works. Sometimes the idea of receiving new life is used as a description of regeneration (compare John 5:21; 7:38; 10:10; John 10:28). In 1 Peter 2:2, the apostle described followers of Jesus as "newborn babes."
Whether the figure used involves birth, life, creation, or flowing rivers, the Bible is presenting a new experience of life which is enriching, comprehensive, and thoroughly renewed in holiness. Need for Regeneration—The great need for an experience of regeneration is apparent from the sinful condition of human beings, "dead in trespasses and sins" (Eph. 2:1). Left to themselves, human beings will corrupt God’s revelation of Himself and turn to gross forms of disobedience (Rom. 1:18-32). God, however, demands holiness as a condition for having fellowship with Himself (Heb. 12:14). Human beings therefore must have a radical change in the very character of their personality. God promises such a change in the experience of regeneration. Source of Regeneration—Throughout Scripture the source of regeneration is the work of the Holy Spirit. Both Scripture (Rom. 3:10-23) and human experience indicate that people lack the power and will to reform. God works upon the human disposition by the use of truth (Jas. 1:18). This truth is the message of salvation which we find in the gospel of Jesus Christ. The role of the Holy Spirit is to take this truth and commend it to the understanding of each hearer (John 16:8-11). Regeneration occurs when the Holy Spirit takes the truth of the gospel message and allows the individual both to understand it and to commit oneself to it. There is a divine initiative through the Holy Spirit. There is a human responsibility in the response to the Spirit’s urging. Role of Baptism—Some churches hold that the experience of regeneration is brought about by the act of baptism. The view which advocates this teaching is known as baptismal regeneration. The Scriptures do not present baptism as the means of regeneration but as the sign of regeneration. Peter’s discussion of baptism in 1 Peter 3:21 pictures the experience of baptism as the symbol of a conscientious response to God. In other texts (Acts 2:38; Col. 2:12; Titus 3:5) we can understand the meaning of the biblical writer by distinguishing between regeneration as an inward change and baptism as the outward sign of that change. The actual change of regeneration is an instantaneous experience brought about by the Holy Spirit. Baptism becomes a means of demonstrating publicly and outwardly the nature of this change. See baptism. Result of Regeneration—Ephesians 4:17-32 makes the result of regeneration apparent. Paul first discussed the nature of the spiritual change in a believer. In regeneration each believer has put off the old way of life, become clothed with a new way of life, and is in the process of having one’s mind renewed in its thinking, reasoning, and willing. Because of this experience Paul urged each believer to practice truth, control anger, demonstrate kindness, and submit to the control of the Holy Spirit. The fact of regeneration formed the basis for giving an appeal to live a new life.
The experience of regeneration does not leave an individual content and passive in efforts at Christian growth. Old powers of evil have been broken. The possibility of victory in the constant struggle with sin has become certain.
Thomas D. Lea
REPENTANCE—A feeling of regret, a changing of the mind, or a turning from sin to God. As a feeling of regret the term can apply even to God. In the days preceding the flood, God was sorry that He had created the human race (Gen. 6:6-7). He later regretted that he had made Saul the king over Israel (1 Sam. 15:11, 35). God also repented in the sense of changing His mind (Ex. 32:14). Most occurrences of the term in the Bible, however, do not refer to God but to people. These also do not indicate mere regret or a change of mind; they mean a reorientation of the sinner to God. In this more common sense, then, God does not repent like humans (1 Sam. 15:29). Old Testament—In ancient Israel repentance was first expressed corporately. When national calamities such as famine, drought, defeat, or a plague of locusts arose, the people did not feel responsible individually for these catastrophes. Rather, they sensed that the incidents were caused by the guilt of the nation. All shared the responsibility and, consequently, the ritual of repentance. Fasting, the wearing of sackcloth (the traditional attire for mourning), the scattering of ashes (Is. 58:5; Neh. 9:1; Dan. 9:3), and the recitation of prayers and psalms in a penitential liturgy characterized this collective experience of worship.
With the use of such outward tokens of repentance, however, the danger of sham or pretense also arose. Ritual not accompanied by a genuine attitude of repentance was empty. Against such misleading and, therefore, futile expressions of remorse, the eighth-century prophets spoke out. Their attacks upon feigned worship and their calls for genuine contrition on the part of the individual gave flower to the characteristic biblical concept of repentance. What was needed was not ritual alone, but the active involvement of the individual in making a radical change within the heart (Ezek. 18:31) and in seeking a new direction for one’s life. What was demanded was a turning from sin and at the same time a turning to God. For the prophets, such a turning or conversion was not just simply a change within a person; it was openly manifested in justice, kindness, and humility (Mic. 6:8; Amos 5:24; Hos. 2:19-20). New Testament—A direct connection between the prophets and the New Testament is found in John the Baptist. Appearing in the wilderness, he, like they, issued the call to his own generation for this radical kind of turning. He baptized those who by confessing their sins responded to his invitation (Mark 1:4-5). Likewise, he expected that those who had made this commitment would demonstrate by their actions the change which they had made in their hearts (Luke 3:10-14). He differed, though, from the prophets in that his message of repentance was intricately bound up with his expectation of the imminent coming of the Messiah (Luke 3:15-17; see also Acts 19:4).
The Messiah came also preaching a message of repentance (Mark 1:15). Stressing that all men needed to repent (Luke 13:1-5), Jesus summoned his followers to turn and become like children (Matt. 18:3). He defined His ministry in terms of calling sinners to repentance (Luke 5:32). Moreover, He illustrated His understanding of repentance in the parable of the prodigal who returned to the father (Luke 15:11-32). Like John, he insisted that the life that was changed was obvious by the "fruit" that it bore (Luke 6:20-45).
Jesus also differed from His predecessors in His proclamation of repentance. He related it closely to the arrival of the kingdom of God (Mark 1:14-15) and specifically associated it with one’s acceptance of Him. Those who were unrepentant were those who rejected Him (Luke 10:8-15; 11:30-32); those who received Him were the truly repentant. In His name repentance and forgiveness were to be proclaimed to all nations (Luke 24:47).
Acts shows this proclamation was made. Peter (Acts 2:38; 3:19; 5:31) and Paul (Acts 17:30; 20:21) told Jews and Gentiles alike "that they should repent and turn to God, performing deeds appropriate to repentance" (Acts 26:20 NASB). The apostolic preaching virtually identified repentance with belief in Christ: both resulted in the forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43).
"Repentance" is infrequently found in Paul’s writings and never in John. Both speak of faith which entails both a rejection of sin and a positive response to God. Other apostolic writings also note the relationship of faith and repentance (Acts 20:21; Heb. 6:1). In 1 John, moreover, confession of sins is tantamount to repentance from sins (1:9). Other Usages—Not all references refer to turning to God from sin. Judas repented of what he had done (Matt. 27:3). The Greek term differs from the normal word for repentance. In this context the meaning is regret or remorse; Judas’ repentance was not the type that leads towards salvation.
Paul described an earlier letter he had sent to the Corinthians which caused them grief, but which eventually led them to repentance. Here Paul described a change in the Corinthians’ attitude about him (2 Cor. 7:8-13). Their repentance resulted in their reconciliation with him.
Renewal of commitment or reaffirmation of faith seems to be the meaning of repentance in the letters to the seven churches in Revelation (2:5, 16, 21-22; 3:3, 19). Twice the letters call for the readers to remember and thereby to return to what they had been. The call is for rededication and not initial conversion. See Confession; Conversion; Faith; Kingdom of God; Sackcloth.
Naymond Keathley
RIGHTEOUSNESS, RIGHTEOUS—In Christian thought the idea of righteousness contains both a permanent and a changing element. The fixed element is the will to do right; the changing factor is the conception of what may be right at different times and under different circumstances. Throughout the entire course of Christian revelation we discern the emphasis on the first factor. To be sure, in the days of later Pharisaism righteousness came to be so much a matter of externals that the inner intent was often lost sight of altogether (Mt 23:23); but, on the whole and in the main, Christian thought in all ages has recognized as the central element in righteousness the intention to be and do right. This common spirit binds together the first worshippers of God and the latest. Present-day conceptions of what is right differ by vast distances from the conceptions of the earlier Hebrews, but the intentions of the first worshippers are as discernible as are those of the doers of righteousness in the present day.
RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST—The bodily, living appearance of Jesus of Nazareth after He died and was buried, providing certain hope for resurrection of believers. The Greek term for resurrection, anastasis, literally means, "to stand again." In the pagan world it was associated with the cycle of nature and the nature gods, or the survival of a "spiritual part" of a person after death. Because of Jesus Christ and His standing up again from the dead, resurrection has come to mean the restoration of the whole self by God who gave life and creates it anew in the heavenly kingdom. New Testament accounts of the resurrection fall into three categories: the empty tomb, appearances of Jesus before His ascension, and appearances of Jesus after His ascension.
The earliest written account of the resurrection of Jesus is 1 Corinthians 15:3-8. Paul emphasized the appearances of the resurrected Christ to His followers. Paul mentioned an appearance to Cephas (compare Luke 24:34). Then Jesus appeared to the twelve (compare Luke 24:36-43). The appearance to the five hundred, some of whom had died by the time Paul wrote 1 Corinthians, is supposed by some to refer to the ascension (Acts 1:9-11). The appearance of James is nowhere else recorded. Tradition asserts that this was James the brother of Jesus, the author of the Book of James (see Acts 15:13). The second appearance to the disciples may be equated with Jesus’ presentation of Himself to Thomas a week after the first appearance to the apostles (John 20:24-29). Paul mentioned last the appearance of the ascended Christ to Paul himself, an obvious reference to Saul’s conversion experience (Acts 9:1-9).
Matthew reported that two Marys, Magdalene and the mother of James and Joses (Matt. 28:1-2; see 27:56, 61) came to the tomb and witnessed a violent earthquake. The angel who rolled away the stone covering the tomb entrance told the women that Jesus was risen. They were invited to view the empty tomb, then to go and tell the disciples that Jesus was risen and was going to Galilee. Immediately, the resurrected Christ greeted them, urged them not to be afraid, to go and tell the "brothers" that He would meet them in Galilee. The soldiers posted at the tomb reported to their employers, the chief priests, "everything that happened"; and the entire guard was bribed to keep silent. It is not clear whether the soldiers actually saw the resurrected Christ Himself. It is assumed because of the other New Testament accounts that the resurrected Christ appeared only to believers. Matthew’s final report of Jesus’ resurrection is on a mountain in Galilee to His eleven disciples where He gave them the Great Commission (Matt. 28:16-20).
Mark’s account of the resurrection (ch. 16) reports that three women came to the tomb wondering how they would have access to the body in order to use the spices applied to the dead. They discovered the stone rolled away and a young man in white in the tomb. He calmed their fears, told them that Jesus was risen, and that Jesus would meet the disciples in Galilee. The women left bewildered and frightened. The most ancient and reliable manuscripts of Mark end with 16:8. The long ending of Mark records several other appearances of Jesus: to Mary Magdalene (see John 20:11-18); to two walking in the country (see Luke 24:13-32); to the eleven as they were eating (see Luke 24:36-43).
Luke 24 records the visit of three women to the tomb where two angels said that He was risen. The angels reminded the women of Jesus’ teachings about His death and resurrection. The women told the unbelieving disciples about the empty tomb, and Peter investigated the empty tomb. Jesus appeared to Cleopas and another disciple on the way to Emmaus and gave them a prophetic overview concerning the Messiah. At supper He was revealed as the risen Christ and disappeared. The two returned to Jerusalem to tell the disciples and heard that Simon had seen the risen Lord. After the report of the two, Jesus appeared to the apostles and assured them He was not a ghost. He showed His hands and feet, and in the most physical act of the resurrection He ate a piece of fish (v. 43). He then reminded them of prophecies of the Messiah and commissioned them on the mission task. Luke’s closing paragraph is the account of the ascension. The Luke narrative is taken up in Acts (1:6-11). Jesus taught for forty days. He told the disciples to await the Spirit in Jerusalem. When the disciples asked questions about the kingdom, He said it was a question beyond their comprehension, repeated His missionary commission, and ascended as they watched and were assured by angels of His return.
John’s Gospel adds remarkable details to the other three. In the fourth Gospel another disciple (John?) accompanied Peter to the tomb. Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalene and told her not to detain him—a better translation than "do not touch me." Jesus appeared twice to the disciples in the upper room, the second time a week after the first for the sake of the unbelieving Thomas. His classic confession "my Lord and my God' (John 20:28) became the appropriate response of all believing hearts. In John 21 Jesus appeared to seven disciples in Galilee and prepared their breakfast. The occasion was the commissioning of Peter to his special ministry after Peter’s three-time confession of his love for Christ, paralleling his earlier three-time denial of Christ.
The risen Christ appeared to Stephen (Acts 7:55-56), to Saul/Paul (Acts 9:1-6), and to John the Seer (Rev. 1). All of these accounts are not easy to correlate, but a composite picture reveals the following facts. The tomb was empty. Jesus appeared to many believing disciples, women and men, on numerous occasions. Jesus instructed the earliest believers about the prophetic and theological meaning of His death and resurrection. The resurrection of Jesus involved His physical body; but His resurrected life was a new kind of life called into being by God, the Effector of the resurrection (Acts 2:24). Paul, who gave the first account of the resurrection of Christ (1 Cor. 15:3-8), provided the full meaning and importance of the resurrection of Christ. Because of the resurrection of Christ, we have assurance of the resurrection of all persons—some to salvation; some to perdition—vouchsafed in the resurrection of Christ. That is God’s ultimate answer to the problem of death (1 Cor. 15:12-58).
William L. Hendricks
REVELATION, THE BOOK OF—The last book of the Bible, an apocalyptic work pointing to future hope and calling for present faithfulness. Revelation is a work of intensity, forged in the flames of the author’s personal tribulation. It employs the language of biblical allusion and apocalyptic symbolism to express the heights and depths of the author’s visionary experience.
To encourage Christian faithfulness, the Revelation points to the glorious world to come (a world of "no more death or mourning or crying or pain," 21:4 NIV; compare 7:16) at the reappearing of the crucified and risen Jesus. This now enthroned Lord will return to conclude world history (and the tribulations of the readers) with the destruction of God’s enemies, the final salvation of His own people, and the creation of a new heaven and a new earth. The intensity of the prophet’s experience is matched only by the richness of the apocalyptic symbolism he employed to warn his readers of the impending disasters and temptations which would require their steadfast allegiance to the risen Lord. To be sure, the Lord will come in power and majesty, but not before His enemies have exercised a terrible (albeit limited by the divine mercy) attack upon those who "hold to the testimony of Jesus." Author—According to early Christian traditions, the Gospel of John, the three Epistles of John, and the Revelation were all written by the apostle John. The Revelation is the only one of these books that claims to be written by someone named John. Though the author does not claim to be the apostle John, it seems unlikely that any other first-century Christian leader was associated closely enough with the churches of Asia Minor to have referred to himself simply as John. There are certainly some differences in style and language between the fourth Gospel and the Revelation, but, regardless of the problems related to the authorship of the fourth Gospel, it is not implausible to assume that the John of the Revelation was in fact John the apostle, son of Zebedee. Setting—The author’s situation was one of suffering. He was a "fellow partaker in the tribulation" which is "in Jesus," who, because of his testimony to Jesus, was exiled to the island of Patmos (1:9 NASB). The situation of the recipients seemed not yet so dire. To be sure, a faithful Christian in Pergamum had suffered death (2:13), and the church in Smyrna was warned of a time of impending persecution (2:10); but the persecutions described in the Revelation were still largely anticipated at the time of John’s writing. Date—Scholars have traditionally suggested two dates for the writing of the Revelation based upon the repeated references to persecution (1:9; 2:2-3, 10, 13; 3:9-10; 6:10-11; 7:14-17; 11:7; 12:13-13:17; 14:12-20; 19:2; 21:4). From about A.D. 150, Christian authors usually referred to Domitian’s reign (A.D. 81-96) as the time of John’s writing, but there is no historical consensus supporting a persecution of Christians under Domitian while hard evidence does exist for a persecution under Nero (A.D. 54-68). In this century, most New Testament scholars have opted for the later date under Domitian (about A.D. 95), though there has been a resurgence of opinion (including this author’s) arguing for a setting just following the reign of Nero (about A.D. 68). Whichever date is chosen, however, the setting must be closely related to a time of persecution for the author and an anticipated expansion of persecution for the original audience. Type of Literature—The Revelation has traditionally been called an apocalypse. Although the genre itself was not literally acknowledged in the first century, what we now call "apocalyptic literature" certainly existed. In any case, John called his work a "prophecy" (1:3; 22:10, 19), but also gave it some features of an epistle (1:4-7; 22:21).
SACRIFICE AND OFFERING—The physical elements the worshipper brings to the Deity to express devotion, thanksgiving, or the need for forgiveness.
Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East Israel was not unique among the nations of the Ancient Near East in their use of sacrifices and offerings as a means of religious expression. Some type of sacrificial system characterized the many religious methodologies that the nations employed in their attempts to honor their gods. The presence of sacrifices and offerings in Israel, therefore, was a reflection of the larger culture of which this nation was a part.
Many references to the offering of sacrifices exist in extrabiblical literature. The primary approach to the gods was through the sacrificial system. In Babylon, part of the ritual of purifying the temple of Bel for the new year’s festival involved the slaughter of a ram. The animal was decapitated and the priest, in turn, used the body in the purification ceremony. The ram’s body then was thrown into the river. The ritual accompanying the replacing of the head of the kettledrum that was used in the temple required that a black bull be selected for sacrifice. After an elaborate ceremony that culminated in the sacrifice of the bull, its hide was dipped in and rubbed with two separate mixtures and then used to cover the kettledrum.
While the above sacrifices were performed on special occasions, a variety of rams, bulls, and birds were offered as meals to the idols on a daily basis. Barley beer, mixed beer, milk, and wine also were placed before the deities, as well as loaves of bread.
The sacrifices and offerings were designed to serve the gods by meeting any physical need that they may have had. The sacrifices were the food and drink of the gods. Faithfulness to the preparation and presentation of them was an act of devotion.
SAINTS—Holy people, a title for all God’s people but applied in some contexts to a small group seen as the most dedicated ones. Old Testament—Two words are used for saints: qaddish and chasid. Qaddish comes from the qadosh and means holy. To be holy is to separate oneself from evil and dedicate oneself to God. This separation and union is seen both with things and people. All the items of worship are separated for the Lord’s use: altar (Ex. 29:37), oil (Ex. 30:25), garments (Ex. 31:10), and even the people are to be holy (Ex. 22:31). This separation reflects God’s very character, for He is holy (Lev. 19:2). Holiness is clearly portrayed as an encounter with the living God, which results in a holiness of life-style (Isa. 6). So holiness is more than a one-time separating and uniting activity. It is a way of life. "Ye shall be holy: for I ... am holy" (Lev. 19:2). Saints are people who try to live holy lives (Dan. 7:18-28). Chasid means "to be kind or merciful." These are qualities of God. Thus, chasid people are godly people because they reflect His character. Saints praise the Lord for His lifelong favor (Ps. 30:4), rejoice in goodness (2 Chron. 6:41), and know that God keeps their paths (1 Sam. 2:9). God’s encounter with His people through the covenant enables them to walk as His saints. New Testament—One word, hagios, is used for saints in the New Testament. This word, like qadosh, means holy. Consequently, saints are the holy ones. There is only one reference to saints in the Gospels (Matt. 27:52). In this verse, dead saints are resurrected at the Lord’s crucifixion. The death of the holy One provides life for those who believe in God. In Acts, three of the four references occur in chapter 9 (vv. 13, 32, 41). First Ananias and then Peter talks of the saints as simply believers in Christ. Paul continues this use in his Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians, and Philemon. In each case, saints seem simply to be people who name Jesus as Lord. In the Book of Revelation, however, where the word saints, occurs more times than in any other single book (13 times), the meaning is further defined. Saints not only name Jesus as Lord, but they are faithful and true witnesses for Jesus.
Little wonder then that the early church considered witnesses who were martyred for their testimonies to be saints. In fact, soon these saints were accorded special honor and then even worship. Unfortunately, the term saints came to be applied only to such special people.
Biblically, though, the term saint is correctly applied to anyone who believes Jesus Christ is Lord. To believe in Jesus demands obedience and conformity to His will. A saint bears true and faithful witness to Christ in speech and life-style. To be a saint is a present reality when a believer seeks to let the Spirit form Christ within (Rom. 8:29; Gal. 4:19; Eph. 4:13).
by William Vermillion
SALVATION—The acutely dynamic act of snatching others by force from serious peril. In its most basic sense, salvation is the saving of a life from death or harm. Scripture, particularly the New Testament, extends salvation to include deliverance from the penalty and power of sin. Old Testament—For Israelite faith, salvation never carried a purely secular sense of deliverance from death or harm. Because God and no other is the source of salvation, any saving act—even when the focus is preservation of life or release from national oppression—is a spiritual event. The primary saving event in the Old Testament is the Exodus (Ex. 14:13) which demonstrated both God’s power to save and God’s concern for His oppressed people (Ex. 34:6-7). Israel recounted God’s deliverance from Egyptian slavery in the Passover ritual (Ex. 12:1-13), in sermon (Neh. 9:9-11), and in psalms (for example, Pss. 74:12-13; 78:13, 42-54; 105:26-38). The retelling of the Exodus event and of God’s provision during the wilderness years (Neh. 9:12-21; Pss. 78:14-29; 105:39-41; 114:8) provided a precedent for sharing other stories of national and even personal deliverance (Pss. 40:10; 71:15).
Some argue that the Old Testament does not link salvation with the forgiveness of sins. The recurring cycle of national sin, foreign oppression, national repentance, and salvation by a God-sent "judge," however, witnesses the linkage (Judg. 3:7-9, 12, 15; 4:1-4; 6:1, 7, 12; also Neh. 9:27; Ps. 106:34-46). God’s sending of a deliverer is in effect God’s act of forgiveness of the penitent (compare Pss. 79:9; 85:4). Psalms 51:12 perhaps provides the best Old Testament case for personal salvation from sin.
In the Old Testament, salvation primarily concerns God’s saving acts within human history. The early prophets anticipated God’s salvation to be realized in the earth’s renewed fruitfulness and the rebuilding of the ruined cities of Israel (Amos 9:13-15). Salvation would extend to all nations who would stream to Zion for instruction in God’s ways (Isa. 2:2-4; Mic. 4:1-4; Zech. 8:20-23). The prophets also hinted of a salvation that lies outside history (for example, Isa. 51:6). The larger context of Isaiah 25:9 reveals that God’s salvation embraces abundant life (25:6) and the end of death (25:7), tears, and disgrace (25:8).
Throughout most of the Old Testament, salvation is a corporate or community experience. The Psalms, however, are especially concerned with the salvation of the individual from the threat of enemies (Pss. 13:5; 18:2, 35; 24:5). Though the focus is negative—salvation involves foiling the enemies’ wrongdoing—there are hints of a positive content of salvation that embraces prosperity (as in Ps. 18:35). The Psalms are especially interested in God’s salvation of the "upright in heart" (Ps. 36:10) or righteous (Ps. 37:19-40) who rely on God for deliverance. Psalm 51:12 more than any other Old Testament text associates personal salvation with a conversion experience; renewed joy of salvation accompanies God’s creation of a new heart and right spirit and assurance of God’s abiding presence. New Testament—For convenience, salvation can be viewed from the two perspectives of Christ's saving work and the believer’s experience of salvation.
Christ's saving work involves already completed, on-going, and future saving activity. Jesus’ earthly ministry made salvation a present reality for His generation. Jesus’ healing ministry effected salvation from disease (Mark 5:34; 10:52; Luke 17:19). Jesus offered God’s forgiveness to hurting people (Mark 2:5; Luke 7:50). He assured a repentant Zacchaeus that "Today salvation has come to this house" (Luke 19:9). Through such encounters Jesus fulfilled the goal of His ministry: "to seek and to save that which was lost" (Luke 19:10).
The apex of Christ's completed work is His sacrificial death: Christ came to "give his life a ransom for many" (Mark 10:45); Christ "entered once for all into the Holy Place, ... with his own blood, thus obtaining eternal redemption" (Heb. 9:12 NRSV); "in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them" (2 Cor. 5:19 NRSV). Here ransom, redemption, and reconciliation are synonyms for salvation. With reference to Christ's atoning work, the believer can confess, "I was saved when Jesus died for me."
Christ's present saving work primarily concerns Christ's role as mediator (Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25; 1 John 2:1). Christ's future saving work chiefly concerns Christ’s coming again "to bring salvation to those who eagerly await him" (Heb. 9:28 REB) and salvation from the wrath of God’s final judgment (Rom. 5:9-10).
Though Christ’s sacrificial death is central, Christ’s saving activity extends to the whole of His life, including His birth (Gal. 4:4-5), resurrection (Rom. 4:25; 1 Cor. 15:17), and ascension (Rom. 8:34).
The believer’s experience also offers a perspective for viewing salvation. The experience again embraces the past, present, and future. God’s initial work in the believer’s life breaks down into various scenes: conviction of sin (John 16:8); repentance (turning) from sin to God (Luke 15:7, 10; 2 Cor. 7:10); faith which involves commitment of one’s whole life to Christ (John 3:16, 36); confession of Christ as Lord (Acts 2:21; Rom. 10:9-10). Scripture uses a wealth of images to describe this act: new birth (John 3:3; Titus 3:5); new creation (2 Cor. 5:17); adoption (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:4-5; Eph. 1:5); empowerment to be God’s children (John 1:12); the status of "saints" (1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1). This initial work in the believer’s life is often termed justification. Justification, however, also embraces God’s final judgment (Rom. 2:13; 3:20, 30).
God’s ongoing work in the believer’s life concerns the process of maturing in Christ (Heb. 2:3; 1 Pet. 2:2; 2 Pet. 3:18), growing in Christ’s service (1 Cor. 7:20-22), and experiencing victory over sin through the power of the Holy Spirit (Rom. 7-8). Here sin remains a reality in the believer’s life (Rom. 7; 1 John 1:8-2:1). The believer is caught in between what God has begun and what God is yet to complete (Phil. 1:6; 2:12).
God’s yet to be finished work in the lives of all believers is sometimes called glorification (Rom. 8:17; Heb. 2:10). Scripture, however, uses a wealth of terms for this future saving work: adoption (Rom. 8:23); redemption (Luke 21:28; Rom. 8:23; Eph. 4:30); salvation (Rom. 13:11; Heb. 1:14; 9:28; 1 Pet. 1:5; 2:2); and sanctification (1 Thess. 5:23). God’s future work involves more than the individual; God’s future work extends to the renewal of heaven and earth.
SANCTIFICATION— The process of being made holy resulting in a changed life-style for the believer. The English word sanctification comes from the Latin santificatio, meaning the act/process of making holy, consecrated. In the Greek New Testament, the root hag- is the basis of hagiasmos, "holiness," "consecration," :sanctification"; hagiosyne, "holiness"; hagiotes, "holiness"; hagiazo "to sanctify," "consecrate," "treat as holy," "purify"; and hagios, "holy," "saint." The root idea of the Greek stem is to stand in awe of something or someone. The New Testament usage is greatly dependent upon the Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, for meaning. The hag- words in the Septuagint mostly translated the Hebrew qadosh, "separate, contrasting with the profane." Thus, God is separate; things and people dedicated to Him and to His use are separate. The moral implications of this word came into focus with the prophets and became a major emphasis in the New Testament. Sanctification in the Old Testament—In Old Testament thought the focus of holiness (qadosh) is upon God. He is holy (Ps. 99:9); His name is holy (Pss. 99:3; 111:9) and may not be profaned (Lev. 20:3). Since God exists in the realm of the holy rather than the profane, all that pertains to Him must come into that same realm of holiness. This involves time, space, objects, and people.
Certain times are sanctified in that they are set apart especially to the Lord: the sabbath (Gen. 2:3), the various festivals (Lev. 23:4-44), the year of Jubilee (Lev. 25:12). By strictly observing the regulations governing each, Israel sanctified (or treated as holy) these special times of the year. Also the land of Canaan (Ex. 15:13), as well as Jerusalem (Isa. 11:9), was holy to the Lord and was not to be polluted by sinful conduct (Lev. 18:27-28). The tabernacle/Temple and all the objects related to it were holy (Ex. 25—Num. 10; Ezek. 40-48). The various gifts brought in worship were sanctified. These fall into three groupings: those whose sanctity was inherent (for example, firstborn males of female animals and human beings, Ex. 13:2, 11-13; Lev. 27:26); objects whose sanctification was required (for example, tithes of crops and pure animals, Lev. 27:30-33; Deut. 26:13); and gifts whose sanctification was voluntary (see partial list in Lev. 27). The dedication of these objects mostly occurred not at some ritual in the sanctuary but at a prior declaration of dedication (Judg. 17:3; Lev. 27:30-33).
Of course, the priests and Levites who functioned in the sanctuary, beginning with Aaron, were sanctified to the Lord by the anointing of oil (Ex. 30:30-32; 40:12-15). Additionally, the Nazirite was consecrated (Num. 6:8), although only for a specified period of time. Finally, the nation of Israel was sanctified to the Lord as a holy people (Ex. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 14:2, 21; 26:19). This holiness was closely identified with obedience to the Law of Holiness in Lev. 17-26, which includes both ritual and ethical commands. In the prophets especially, the ethical responsibility of being holy in conduct came to the forefront (Isa. 5; Jer. 5-7; Amos 4-5; Hos. 11). Sanctification in the New Testament— The same range of meanings reflected by the Septuagint usage is preserved in the New Testament but with extension of meaning in certain cases. Objects may be made holy (Matt. 23:17, 19; 1 Tim. 4:5) or treated as holy (Matt. 6:9; Luke 11:2), but, mostly, the word group stresses the personal dimension of holiness. Here, the two streams of Old Testament meaning are significant: the cultic and the ethical. Sanctification is vitally linked to the salvation experience and is concerned with the moral/spiritual obligations assumed in that experience. We were set apart to God in conversion, and we are living out that dedication to God in holiness.
The link of New Testament thought to Old Testament antecedents in the cultic aspect of sanctification is most clearly seen in Hebrews. Christ’s crucifixion makes possible the moving of the sinner from the profane to the holy (that is, sanctifies, makes holy) so that the believer can become a part of the temple where God dwells and is worshiped (Heb. 13:11-16; 2:9-11; 10:10, 14, 29). Paul (Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 1:2; 6:11; Eph. 5:26-27; 2 Thess. 2:13) and Peter (1 Pet. 1:2) both affirmed the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion as a sanctification, a making the believer holy so as to come before God in acceptance. Especially in Paul, justification and sanctification are closely related concepts. See Justification.
Hebrews also emphasizes the ethical aspect of sanctification. Sanctification/holiness is to be pursued as an essential aspect of the believer’s life (Heb. 12:14); the blood of sanctification must not be defiled by sinful conduct (10:26-31). Paul stressed both the individual’s commitment to holy living (Rom. 6:19-22; 1 Thess. 4:3-8; 2 Cor. 7:1) and the enabling power of God for it (1 Thess. 3:13; 4:8). The summation of the ethical imperative is seen in Peter’s use (1 Pet. 1:15-16) of Leviticus 11:44; 19:2; 20:7: "Be ye holy; for I am holy."
by Lorin L. Cranford
SCRIPTURE (skrihp' tewre)—Historic Judaeo-Christian name for the specific literature that the church receives as divine instruction. Scripture means "a writing" rendering the Latin scriptura and the Greek graphe. The term is used some fifty times in the New Testament for some or all of the Old Testament.
In the history of the church, the divine character of Scripture has been the great presupposition for the whole of Christian preaching and theology. This is apparent in the way the New Testament speaks about the Old Testament. New Testament writers often used formulas like "God says" and "the Holy Spirit says" to introduce Old Testament passages. For the New Testament authors, Scripture was the record of God speaking and revealing Himself to His people. Thus Scripture and God are so closely joined together that these writers could speak of Scripture doing what it records God as doing (Gal. 3:8; Rom. 9:17).
Because of their belief in the Scriptures’ divine origin and content, the New Testament writers described it as "sure" (2 Pet. 1:19), trustworthy "of all acceptation" (1 Tim. 1:15), and "confirmed" (Heb. 2:3). Its word "endureth forever" (1 Pet. 1:24, 25). Those who build their lives on Scripture "will not be disappointed" (Rom. 9:33 NASB). The Bible was written for "instruction" and "encouragement" (Rom. 15:4 NASB), to lead to saving faith (2 Tim. 3:15), to guide people toward godliness (2 Tim. 3:16b), and to equip believers for good works (2 Tim. 3:17).
The purpose of Scripture is to place men and women in a right standing before God and to enable believers to seek God’s glory in all of life’s activities and efforts. It is above all a book of redemptive history.
Scripture is not only a divine Book, but a divine-human Book. It is important to recognize that the biblical writers employed the linguistic resources available to them as they wrote to specific people with particular needs at particular times. The human authors were not lifted out of their culture or removed from their contexts. They functioned as members of believing communities, aware of God’s leadership in their lives.
Scripture, comprised of 66 books, written by over 40 authors spanning almost 1,500 years, reveals to God’s people the unifying history of His redeeming words and acts. The ultimate focus of Scripture is the incarnation and redemptive work of Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ is the center to which everything in Scripture is united and bound together—beginning and end, creation and redemption, humanity, the world, the fall, history, and future.
by David S. Dockery
SEPTUAGINT (sehp tew' uh gihnt)—Title meaning, "the 70." Oldest Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament. It also contains several apocryphal books. Most New Testament quotations of the Old Testament are from the Septuagint. See Apocrypha; Bible, Texts and Versions.
SIN—Actions by which humans rebel against God. A fairly exact definition of sin based on Biblical data would be that sin is the transgression of the law of God (1 John 3:4). Ordinarily, sin is defined simply as "the transgression of the law," but the idea of God is so completely the essential conception of the entire Biblical revelation that we can best define sin as disobedience to the law of God. It will be seen that primarily sin is an act, but from the very beginning it has been known that acts have effects, not only in the outward world of things and persons, but also upon him who commits the act.
